Forced to join the Waffen-SS? Chief pharmacist Victor Capesius (1907-1985) and his role in Auschwitz concentration camp.

Victor Capesius (1907-1985) attained sad fame as chief pharmacist in the Auschwitz concentration camp. After the war he outlined himself as a victim of his time and claimed to have been forced into the Waffen-SS as a so-called Romanian "Volksdeutscher" (ethnic German). But does this claim stand up to critical scrutiny? What was his actual role in Auschwitz, how did his life develop in the postwar period, how did he himself evaluate his actions in the Third Reich, and to what extent do self-image and historical facts coincide? These are precisely the questions that this article explores. The study is based on primary sources from various archives. These are supplemented and compared with the existing literature on Capesius, the role of pharmacists in the Third Reich, and the Auschwitz concentration camp.
The analysis shows that Capesius was not only complicit in the criminal acts in the concentration camp, but directly involved in the systematic killing of thousands of Jewish people - among other things, by dispensing Zyklon B and phenol and by the lethal selection of people at the ramp. The alleged compulsion to join the Waffen-SS, on the other hand, cannot be substantiated. After 1945, Capesius was imprisoned twice by the Allies, but only charged in the first Auschwitz trial in the 1960s. Despite a guilty verdict, he was released from prison as early as 1968. At the end of his life, Capesius could look back on a successful career as a pharmacist and businessman in Germany. At no time did he come to a self-critical evaluation of his role in the Third Reich.

[The pathologist and "short-term rector" Albert Dietrich (1873-1961) and his ambivalent relationship with the Nazi regime : Not Nazi enough? German version]. / Der Pathologe und "Kurzzeitrektor" Albert Dietrich (1873­1961) und sein ambivalentes Verhältnis zum NS­Regime : Nicht nationalsozialistisch genug?

Throughout his professional life, the pathologist Albert Dietrich devoted himself to researching and combating cancer. Due to his considerable reputation and success, he was one of the first doctors to be awarded the Paracelsus Medal for his scientific services in 1952.However, Dietrich's role in the Third Reich was - and still is - far less defined. In May 1933, he became rector of the Eberhard Karls University in Tübingen, which at that time was one of the most Nazi-oriented universities. However, his term of office was short - by the end of 1933 he had already been replaced by the protestant theologian Karl Fezer.This article sheds light on Dietrich's ambivalent relationship to National Socialism and analyzes and discusses the background to his dismissal, his later (also politically influenced) emeritus status (1938/39), and his entry into the NSDAP, which took place at retirement age (1941). The study is based on archival sources partly evaluated for the first time and on a reanalysis of the relevant research literature.The study shows that Dietrich was targeted by individual Nazi decision-makers primarily because he advocated a supposedly "liberalist" university policy. Dietrich thus ultimately stands for a type of university lecturer who renounced a decidedly Nazi stance in public without, however, placing himself in a critical relationship to Nazi ideology. Against this background, statements from the postwar period that saw him retrospectively near Nazi opposition are to be classified as the formation of legends.

The pathologist Philipp Schwartz (1894-1977) : From Nazi victim to initiator of the "Emergency Society of German Scholars Abroad".

Without a doubt, Frankfurt Pathologist Philipp Schwartz is one of the most iconic scholars in recent medical history. As the son of Jewish parents, he was forced to emigrate after Hitler seized power in 1933. Despite this repressive experience, he succeeded in founding the "Notgemeinschaft deutscher Wissenschaftler im Ausland" ("Emergency Association of German Scientists Abroad") in 1933, with which he helped hundreds of forcibly emigrated university teachers find academic positions. In addition, he had a decisive influence on the reform of the higher education system in Turkey, rendered outstanding achievements in neuropathology, and attained leading positions as a scientist in the exile countries Turkey and the USA.However, as successful as the pathologist's scientific career in exile may have been, his relationship with Germany remained problematic throughout his life. Against this background, this article focuses on the reception of Philipp Schwartz in the different political systems of Germany - from the Weimar Republic to the Third Reich, and from post-war Germany to the recent past in the Federal Republic. This study is essentially based on primary sources from the University Archive of Frankfurt.Schwartz had a promising career in the Weimar Republic. In the aftermath of Hitler's takeover (1933) he was deprived of any perspectives in Germany and fled to Switzerland in the spring of 1933. His achievements as a full professor in Istanbul and as initiator of the Notgemeinschaft are remarkable in both scientific and political regards. Still, he was denied employment at the Goethe University Frankfurt. Until well after his death (1977), Philipp Schwartz's life and work received little attention in Germany. It was only after the turn of the millennium that he received the recognition he was denied during his lifetime.

A career start in the Third Reich : The pathologist and Rudolf Virchow Award recipient Walter Müller (1907-1983).

The pathologist Walter Müller is undoubtedly one of the most prominent post-war representatives of his profession. He became full professor and founding dean in Essen, and in 1983 the German Society for Pathology (DGP) awarded him the Rudolf Virchow Medal - the highest distinction of the society - for his merits to the field of pathology.But this glorious career was by no means predetermined. Rather, after the end of the Second World War there were signs of a career break that were still largely unknown. After fleeing Königsberg from the approaching Red Army, Müller had to fear for his professional existence and his scientific advancement, as he was threatened with a ban on his profession in connection with denazification. As a young assistant doctor, Müller had joined the Berlin SA soon after the National Socialists took power and had also applied for membership of the NSDAP in 1937.Using Müller as an example, this article deals with the political influences and effects of National Socialism on young scientists and their career development. It poses the question of typical political barriers and overarching patterns of adaptation.On the basis of the personal written estate, personal archive sources, and a reanalysis of the available secondary literature, existing self-portrayals and narratives of Walter Müller are critically reviewed and supplemented. Several examples show that Müller's career development was characterized by a willingness to adapt politically. After a brief career slump in the years 1946/47, he succeeded in consolidating his career thanks to a mild denazification process and subsequently became one of the leading experts in German-language pathology.

[The pathologist Philipp Schwartz (1894-1977) : From Nazi victim to initiator of the "Emergency Society of German Scholars Abroad". German version]. / Der Pathologe Philipp Schwartz (1894­1977) : Vom NS-Opfer zum Initiator der "Notgemeinschaft deutscher Wissenschaftler im Ausland".

Without a doubt, Frankfurt Pathologist Philipp Schwartz is one of the most iconic scholars in recent medical history. As the son of Jewish parents, he was forced to emigrate after Hitler seized power in 1933. Despite this repressive experience, he succeeded in founding the "Notgemeinschaft deutscher Wissenschaftler im Ausland" ("Emergency Association of German Scientists Abroad") in 1933, with which he helped hundreds of forcibly emigrated university teachers find academic positions. In addition, he had a decisive influence on the reform of the higher education system in Turkey, rendered outstanding achievements in neuropathology, and attained leading positions as a scientist in the exile countries Turkey and the USA.However, as successful as the pathologist's scientific career in exile may have been, his relationship with Germany remained problematic throughout his life. Against this background, this article focuses on the reception of Philipp Schwartz in the different political systems of Germany - from the Weimar Republic to the Third Reich, and from post-war Germany to the recent past in the Federal Republic. This study is essentially based on primary sources from the University Archive of Frankfurt.Schwartz had a promising career in the Weimar Republic. In the aftermath of Hitler's takeover (1933) he was deprived of any perspectives in Germany and fled to Switzerland in the spring of 1933. His achievements as a full professor in Istanbul and as initiator of the Notgemeinschaft are remarkable in both scientific and political regards. Still, he was denied employment at the Goethe University Frankfurt. Until well after his death (1977), Philipp Schwartz's life and work received little attention in Germany. It was only after the turn of the millennium that he received the recognition he was denied during his lifetime.

[The double exclusion of the pathologist and Nazi victim Paul Kimmelstiel (1900-1970). German version]. / Die doppelte Ausgrenzung des Pathologen und NS-Opfers Paul Kimmelstiel (1900­1970).

The Hamburg pathologist Paul Kimmelstiel (1900-1970) gave his name to diabetic glomerulosclerosis (Kimmelstiel-Wilson syndrome) and thus conquered a place in the history of medicine. Far less known, however, is the fact that Kimmelstiel was one of the Jewish victims of the Third Reich. He was dismissed in 1933, saw himself forced to emigrate in 1934, and fought for "rehabilitation" ("Wiedergutmachung") after 1945.The present article focuses on Kimmelstiel's role as a politically persecuted and disenfranchised Jew.It examines (1) the background to his dismissal and forced emigration, (2) the question of "compensation" for his deprivation in postwar Germany, but also (3) the interactions between this racially motivated exclusion and biographical uprooting on one hand and the subsequent, highly remarkable international career development on the other.The study is based on previously unknown archival sources and on a reanalysis of the relevant research literature.This paper concludes that Kimmelstiel's emigration took place under traumatic circumstances. More astonishing is the fact that he quickly developed into a highly respected and famous exile scientist. However, the political and professional treatment of Kimmelstiel in post-war Germany was much less favorable. His efforts for rehabilitation were only partially successful, taking a long time and requiring considerable efforts. Only laying a Stolperstein monument in front of the University Hospital Hamburg-Eppendorf in 2014 marked a provisional, conciliatory conclusion in dealing with the victim Paul Kimmelstiel.

[A career start in the Third Reich : The pathologist and Rudolf Virchow Award recipient Walter Müller (1907-1983)]. / Ein Karrierestart im "Dritten Reich" : Der Pathologe und Rudolf-Virchow-Preisträger Walter Müller (1907­1983).

The pathologist Walter Müller is undoubtedly one of the most prominent post-war representatives of his profession. He became full professor and founding dean in Essen, and in 1983 the German Society for Pathology (DGP) awarded him the Rudolf Virchow Medal - the highest distinction of the society - for his merits to the field of pathology.But this glorious career was by no means predetermined. Rather, after the end of the Second World War there were signs of a career break that were still largely unknown. After fleeing Königsberg from the approaching Red Army, Müller had to fear for his professional existence and his scientific advancement, as he was threatened with a ban on his profession in connection with denazification. As a young assistant doctor, Müller had joined the Berlin SA soon after the National Socialists took power and had also applied for membership of the NSDAP in 1937.Using Müller as an example, this article deals with the political influences and effects of National Socialism on young scientists and their career development. It poses the question of typical political barriers and overarching patterns of adaptation.On the basis of the personal written estate, personal archive sources, and a reanalysis of the available secondary literature, existing self-portrayals and narratives of Walter Müller are critically reviewed and supplemented. Several examples show that Müller's career development was characterized by a willingness to adapt politically. After a brief career slump in the years 1946/47, he succeeded in consolidating his career thanks to a mild denazification process and subsequently became one of the leading experts in German-language pathology.

[Demise of the wound physician vocation exemplified by the political representative Arnold Schlegel (1850-1924)]. / Die Agonie des wundärztlichen Berufsstandes am Beispiel des Standespolitikers Arnold Schlegel (1850-1924).

The name of Arnold Schlegel stands for a dazzling and complex personality. After being apprenticed to a barber surgeon in Württemberg, he spent about four decades in Switzerland working as an innkeeper. Yet, Schlegel distinguished himself as one of the leading representatives of the last non-academic surgeons in Württemberg. In contrast to most of his surgical colleagues, most of Schlegel's vocational activities are documented. This study is based on unpublished documents of different archives of Württemberg and Switzerland. The aim of the study is to illuminate the life of Arnold Schlegel and, in view of his policy, to illustrate the trying circumstances of contemporary barber surgery.

[Gottlieb Burckhardt's (1836-1907) contribution to psychosurgery: medicohistorical and ethical aspects]. / Der Beitrag Gottlieb Burckhardts (1837-1907) zur Psychochirurgie in medizinhistorischer und ethischer Sicht.

Psychosurgery is defined as the practice of destroying or removing healthy brain tissue in order to change behaviour. Although the neurologist Egas Moniz (1874-1955) is occasionally said to be the founder of psychosurgery, the first psychosurgical operations were performed by Gottlieb Burckhardt, a Swiss psychiatrist who practised in the late 19th century. In 1891 he reported the results of topectomies on six patients suffering from different psychiatric diseases. The aim of the present article is to illuminate the life of Burckhardt as well as his contribution to psychosurgery. Special attention is paid to the ethical aspects of his operative interventions. First of all, we have to make allowance for the fact that the therapeutic chances in 19th century psychiatry were quite poor. Therefore, Burckhardts topectomies might have been seen as a new and hopeful way of therapy. But by analysing Burckhardt's case reports, it becomes clear that he did not intend to cure his patients but only to ameliorate their disturbing behaviour and their non-compliance. Burckhardt himself tried to justify the immense risk of his operations by referring to the necessity of progress in medicine. Although Burckhardt spoke of promising improvements, his positive appraisal can hardly be maintained. For this and other reasons, his contemporary colleagues mainly declined his methods and reports.

[Rise of the wound surgeon to academic surgeon: myth or historical fact?]. / Der Aufstieg vom Wundarzt zum akademischen Chirurgen: Mythos oder historische Tatsache?

In contrast to modern academic surgery, in 19th century German medical care was mainly taken by non-academic barber surgeons. Only after the foundation of the German Reich (1871) the practice of surgery was made conditional on a full study of medicine. The present article follows up the moot question whether the last generation of barber surgeons succeeded in rising to academic status or if the strong tradition of surgery in barber families was brought to a complete standstill. By evaluating archival documents it can be clearly shown that the professional distance between barber surgery and academic medicine was not invincible. A considerable number of barbers and their descendents (subsequently) succeeded in studying medicine and starting a medical career.

[Professional heritage and social origin of the Württemberg barber surgeons of the 19th century]. / Berufsvererbung und soziale Herkunft der württembergischen Wundärzte im 19. Jahrhundert.

In nineteenth-century Württemberg, barber surgeons (Wundärzte) were subdivided into various grades. They were increasingly confronted with severe governmental restrictions that both threatened their professional image and weakened their economical prospects. Therefore an archival study has been made on behalf of the social background of surgical examines by means of their father's occupation. As a result it could be shown that more than half the registered fathers were barber surgeons themselves. About 20 percent of the surgical candidates were recruited from the craft, whereas physicians, apothecaries and other professionals could hardly be found. Even pastors, that were supposed to be professionally linked with surgeons, were rarely made reference to. The candidates were classified into two groups, according to different periods of time (1800 to 1829 and 1830 to 1873). As to the social origin of the examinees, no appreciable differences between both periods could be found.

[Exclusion of wound physicians from health care in Germany 1871/72]. / Die Verdrängung der Wundärzte aus der Heilkunde in Deutschland 1871/72.

At the beginning of the 1870s, non-academic surgeons were finally banished from officially accepted medical practice in Württemberg - the last German Land in which they had still been recognized. As contemporary reports by barber-surgeons make clear, they had agreed to the elimination of their handiwork - in the hope of winning thereby generous "terms of transition" for the remaining practitioners of their trade. The fact is that in this point, too, barber-surgeons - at least for the most part - had but little success, clearly put them on the losing side in political conflict of professional interests.