Recruitment and retention of general practitioners in European medical deserts: a systematic review.

INTRODUCTION: Despite policies aiming at universal health coverage by ensuring availability and accessibility of general practitioners (GPs), medically underserved areas are still present in Europe. This systematic review aims to summarize and compare literature on interventions and their potential effectiveness of GP recruitment and retention in these underserved areas ('medical deserts') from 2011 onwards. METHODS: PubMed and Embase were used to identify publications, applying a two-stage selection process. All types of study designs, published in the past 10 years, were included if they discussed a possible intervention for GP recruitment or retention covering an underserved area in an EU-27/EEA/EFTA country (part of the European Union, the European Economic Area or the European Free Trade Association). Exclusion criteria were abstracts or full text not available, conference abstracts, poster presentations, books or overlapping secondary literature. Identified interventions were classified into four categories: 'education', 'professional and personal support', 'financial incentives' and 'regulation'. Eligible articles were critically appraisal by two authors (JB, LF), independently, by using the Joanna Briggs Institute checklist. RESULTS: Of the 294 publications initially retrieved, 25 publications were included. Of them, 14 (56%) described educational interventions, 13 (52%) professional and personal support, and 11 (40%) financial or regulatory interventions. Overlapping categories were often described (56%). The effectiveness of educational or supportive interventions has mainly been evaluated cross-sectionally, whereby causal inference on future GP availability cannot be implied. Few and mixed results were found for the effectiveness of financial and regulatory interventions, because period co-interventions were not taken into account during the study. CONCLUSION: In the past 10 years, educational and supportive interventions to improve GP recruitment and retention have been reported most frequently, but often overlapping strategies are seen. While multiple strategies have potential to be effective, their limited evaluation makes it difficult to provide suggestions for policymakers to adapt their GP recruitment and retention strategies aiming at a best-practice approach in European medical deserts.

Medical education interventions influencing physician distribution into underserved communities: a scoping review.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Physician maldistribution is a global problem that hinders patients' abilities to access healthcare services. Medical education presents an opportunity to influence physicians towards meeting the healthcare needs of underserved communities when establishing their practice. Understanding the impact of educational interventions designed to offset physician maldistribution is crucial to informing health human resource strategies aimed at ensuring that the disposition of the physician workforce best serves the diverse needs of all patients and communities. METHODS: A scoping review was conducted using a six-stage framework to help map current evidence on educational interventions designed to influence physicians' decisions or intention to establish practice in underserved areas. A search strategy was developed and used to conduct database searches. Data were synthesized according to the types of interventions and the location in the medical education professional development trajectory, that influence physician intention or decision for rural and underserved practice locations. RESULTS: There were 130 articles included in the review, categorized according to four categories: preferential admissions criteria, undergraduate training in underserved areas, postgraduate training in underserved areas, and financial incentives. A fifth category was constructed to reflect initiatives comprised of various combinations of these four interventions. Most studies demonstrated a positive impact on practice location, suggesting that selecting students from underserved or rural areas, requiring them to attend rural campuses, and/or participate in rural clerkships or rotations are influential in distributing physicians in underserved or rural locations. However, these studies may be confounded by various factors including rural origin, pre-existing interest in rural practice, and lifestyle. Articles also had various limitations including self-selection bias, and a lack of standard definition for underservedness. CONCLUSIONS: Various educational interventions can influence physician practice location: preferential admissions criteria, rural experiences during undergraduate and postgraduate medical training, and financial incentives. Educators and policymakers should consider the social identity, preferences, and motivations of aspiring physicians as they have considerable impact on the effectiveness of education initiatives designed to influence physician distribution in underserved locations.

Recruitment and retention of primary care nurse practitioners in underserved areas: A scoping review.

BACKGROUND: The growing nurse practitioner (NP) workforce plays a critical role in primary care delivery in the United States. However, better recruitment and retention of the robust NP workforce in underserved areas are needed; evidence to inform such effort is limited. PURPOSE: This scoping review aimed to examine the findings, scope, and knowledge gaps of available literature on factors associated with NP recruitment and retention in underserved areas. METHODS: This review was guided by Joanna Briggs' Scoping Review Methodology and PRISMA-SCR reporting standards. Literature search for peer-reviewed and gray literature was conducted in six databases. FINDINGS: A total of 22 studies met inclusion criteria. Factors associated with NP recruitment and retention in underserved areas were mapped into five themes, including factors related to: the individual NP, NP education programs/financial aid, organizations employing NPs, the communities NPs work in, and autonomous practice. Majority of the included studies were published before 2010; few used rigorous study designs and analysis methods; and few exclusively studied NPs and unique challenges facing the NP workforce. DISCUSSION: Available studies demonstrate that NP recruitment and retention can be addressed by various stakeholders (e.g., educators, policy makers); however, up-to-date, methodologically rigorous, and NP-focused studies are needed.

Interventions for health workforce retention in rural and remote areas: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Attracting and retaining sufficient health workers to provide adequate services for residents of rural and remote areas has global significance. High income countries (HICs) face challenges in staffing rural areas, which are often perceived by health workers as less attractive workplaces. The objective of this review was to examine the quantifiable associations between interventions to retain health workers in rural and remote areas of HICs, and workforce retention. METHODS: The review considers studies of rural or remote health workers in HICs where participants have experienced interventions, support measures or incentive programs intended to increase retention. Experimental, quasi-experimental and observational study designs including cohort, case-control, cross-sectional and case series studies published since 2010 were eligible for inclusion. The Joanna Briggs Institute methodology for reviews of risk and aetiology was used. Databases searched included MEDLINE (OVID), CINAHL (EBSCO), Embase, Web of Science and Informit. RESULTS: Of 2649 identified articles, 34 were included, with a total of 58,188 participants. All study designs were observational, limiting certainty of findings. Evidence relating to the retention of non-medical health professionals was scant. There is growing evidence that preferential selection of students who grew up in a rural area is associated with increased rural retention. Undertaking substantial lengths of rural training during basic university training or during post-graduate training were each associated with higher rural retention, as was supporting existing rural health professionals to extend their skills or upgrade their qualifications. Regulatory interventions requiring return-of-service (ROS) in a rural area in exchange for visa waivers, access to professional licenses or provider numbers were associated with comparatively low rural retention, especially once the ROS period was complete. Rural retention was higher if ROS was in exchange for loan repayments. CONCLUSION: Educational interventions such as preferential selection of rural students and distributed training in rural areas are associated with increased rural retention of health professionals. Strongly coercive interventions are associated with comparatively lower rural retention than interventions that involve less coercion. Policy makers seeking rural retention in the medium and longer term would be prudent to strengthen rural training pathways and limit the use of strongly coercive interventions.

Building Regional Expertise: Perspectives from Show-Me ECHO Participants.

This article highlights four primary care providers that practice in underserved areas in Missouri. Show-Me ECHO (Extension for Community Healthcare Outcomes) provides colleagues opportunities for consultation and Continuing Medical Education (CME) around particular conditions. Through their participation, these providers have 1) enhanced their comfort and skill in diagnosis and treatment, 2) become important regional resources for patients and other providers, and 3) improved access to specialty services in their community.

Poland and physician assistants.

Historically, physician assistants (PAs) or their equivalent have been used to offset shortages of healthcare providers in many parts of the world. Poland, having been strongly influenced by Russia and the Soviet Union, revived the feldsher in the post-world war era. With a successful expansion of medical schools, the eventual surplus of physicians meant feldshers were no longer needed. In the early 2000s, Poland found itself in yet another medical provider crisis and turned toward the creation of the Polish PA profession.

Experiences of foreign medical graduates (FMGs), international medical graduates (IMGs) and overseas trained graduates (OTGs) on entering developing or middle-income countries like South Africa: a scoping review.

BACKGROUND: Foreign medical graduates (FMGs) have continued to render effective health care services to underserved communities in many high- and middle-income countries. In rural and disadvantaged areas of South Africa, FMGs have alleviated the critical shortage of doctors. FMGs experience challenges to adjust to new working environments as they have studied and obtained their medical qualifications in a country that differs from the one where they eventually choose to practise. OBJECTIVES: This scoping review synthesises literature about the experiences of FMGs upon entering a host country and the factors that facilitate their adjustment to the new context. METHODS: The systematic review was performed to analyse articles from an initial scoping of published literature on the experiences and adjustment of FMGs between 2000 and 2016. Searches were conducted through MEDLINE and PUBMED on keywords that included "foreign medical graduates", "experiences" "adjustment", "adaptation" and "assimilation". The database searches yielded 268 articles and a further 3 were identified through other sources. The number of articles was reduced to 20 after the removal of duplicates and the application of the exclusion criteria. A qualitative thematic analysis was performed. RESULTS: The searches revealed an overall lack of studies on the experiences and adjustment of FMGs from the African continent. FMGs faced professional barriers, lacked country-specific knowledge and experienced stress when practising in a new location. They attributed their successful adjustment to innate personal characteristics including a persistent attitude and the use of various coping strategies. Other facilitating factors included early orientation and professional and personal support. CONCLUSION: The review highlighted the need for research from developing and middle-income countries and for an increased awareness of the challenges and enablers to help FMGs adjust to new clinical settings.

Public private partnership in the training of doctors after the 1990s' health sector reforms: the case of Tanzania.

Similar to many other low- and middle-income countries, public private partnership (PPP) in the training of the health workforce has been emphasized since the launch of the 1990s' health sector reforms in Tanzania. PPP in training aims to contribute to addressing the critical shortage of health workforce in these countries. This study aimed to analyse the policy process and experienced outcomes of PPP for the training of doctors in Tanzania two decades after the 1990s' health sector reforms. We reviewed documents and interviewed key informants to collect data from training institutions and umbrella organizations that train and employ doctors in both the public and private sectors. We adopted a hybrid thematic approach to analyse the data while guided by the policy analysis framework by Gagnon and Labonté. PPP in training has contributed significantly to the increasing number of graduating doctors in Tanzania. In tandem, undermining of universities' autonomy and the massive enrolment of medical students unfavourably affect the quality of graduating doctors. Although PPP has proven successful in increasing the number of doctors graduating, unemployment of the graduates and lack of database to inform the training needs and capacity to absorb the graduates have left the country with a health workforce shortage and maldistribution at service delivery points, just as before the introduction of the PPP. This study recommends that Tanzania revisit its PPP approach to ensure the health workforce crisis is addressed in its totality. A comprehensive plan is needed to address issues of training within the framework of PPP by engaging all stakeholders in training and deployment starting from the planning of the number of medical students, and when and how they will be trained while taking into account the quality of the training.

Building general practice training capacity in rural and remote Australia with underserved primary care services: a qualitative investigation.

BACKGROUND: Australians living in rural and remote areas have access to considerably fewer doctors compared with populations in major cities. Despite plentiful, descriptive data about what attracts and retains doctors to rural practice, more evidence is needed which informs actions to address these issues, particularly in remote areas. This study aimed to explore the factors influencing General Practitioners (GPs), primary care doctors, and those training to become GPs (registrars) to work and train in remote underserved towns to inform the building of primary care training capacity in areas needing more primary care services (and GP training opportunities) to support their population's health needs. METHODS: A qualitative approach was adopted involving a series of 39 semi-structured interviews of a purposeful sample of 14 registrars, 12 supervisors, and 13 practice managers. Fifteen Australian Medical Graduates (AMG) and eleven International Medical Graduates (IMG), who did their basic medical training in another country, were among the interviewees. Data underwent thematic analysis. RESULTS: Four main themes were identified including 1) supervised learning in underserved communities, 2) impact of working in small, remote contexts, 3) work-life balance, and 4) fostering sustainable remote practice. Overall, the findings suggested that remote GP training provides extensive and safe registrar learning opportunities and supervision is generally of high quality. Supervisors also expressed a desire for more upskilling and professional development to support their retention in the community as they reach mid-career. Registrars enjoyed the challenge of remote medical practice with opportunities to work at the top of their scope of practice with excellent clinical role models, and in a setting where they can make a difference. Remote underserved communities contribute to attracting and retaining their GP workforce by integrating registrars and supervisors into the local community and ensuring sustainable work-life practice models for their doctors. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides important new evidence to support development of high-quality GP training and supervision in remote contexts where there is a need for more GPs to provide primary care services for the population.

Availability of health workforce in urban and rural areas in relation to Canadian seniors.

Geographic imbalances in health human resources exist in a health care system when the composition, level, or use of health care providers does not lead to the same optimal health-system goals in all regions. This can lead to inequitable distribution of health care services, particularly for rural and remote populations. This study aims to determine to what extent the distribution of regulated health professionals and seniors in urban and rural areas of the Canadian jurisdictions is different from one another and from the national average. Data used in this study are for the 2016 calendar year. Information about physicians was obtained from the Canadian Institute for Health Information (CIHI) Scott's Medical Database. The data for nurses (nurse practitioners, registered nurses, and licensed practical nurses) were also sourced from CIHI, Health Workforce Database. Geographic information is based on the postal code of physicians' preferred mailing address, and the residence in the case of nurses and the population. Using the Statistical Area Classification from Statistics Canada, each physician and nurse was assigned to either an urban metropolitan, urban non-metropolitan, or rural/remote area. Findings indicate that there were twice as many nurses per 1000 seniors in urban Canada than in rural Canada. However, this gap was threefold in the case of physicians. Provinces with the largest and lowest gap and international comparisons are also provided. Three broad strategies are offered for policymakers in order to mitigate this health workforce imbalance and reduce the regional shortage of nurses and physicians.

What about the health workforce distribution in rural China? An assessment based on eight-year data.

INTRODUCTION: Health, as a fundamental human right, and its fairness and equality have gradually been reiterated and emphasized around the world. The inequality in health workforce distribution is common in China and many other developing countries. However, it is unknown whether the economic conditions and insufficient supply of village physicians in rural areas worsens health inequality. This study and article aimed to explore and discuss the inequality in health workforce in rural China. METHODS: Inequality in health workforce distribution of rural China as well as trends of village physician-to-population ratios from 2009 to 2016 were measured by the Lorenz curve/Gini coefficient and Theil L index, and compared between four divisions: eastern, central, western and north-eastern. RESULTS: The Gini coefficient of village physicians compared with population from 2009 (0.062) to 2016 (0.038) showed absolute equality in rural China. In contrast, the Thiel L index from 2009 (0.380) to 2016 (0.347) showed less equality. The decomposition of Thiel L index implicated the inequalities within the divisions, which contributed about 85% to the total Theil L index. The eastern division's Theil L index was the highest of the divisions. CONCLUSIONS: Chinese village physician distribution is generally equitable. But there are obvious inequalities existing with the divisions. To achieve a more equitable distribution of health workforce in rural China, the cultivation and retention of village physicians needs to keep pace with the increase in health service demand among rural residents. In addition, government should pay more attention to the inequality in village physician distribution between different regions, as well as within a region.

The need for greater diversity in the PA profession.

Leading organizations committed to improving health and healthcare in the United States agree that a more diverse healthcare workforce is needed to combat widespread disparities affecting underrepresented minority and underserved populations. Until the 1990s, a higher proportion of underrepresented minorities entered PA programs than other healthcare professions programs, such as medical school. However, in recent years, the PA profession has struggled to increase diversity among its ranks. This article reviews the rationale for greater diversity in the PA workforce, discusses the obstacles that underrepresented minority students and PA educators face, and makes recommendations to address diversity. The PA profession's rapid growth presents an opportunity to expedite change through community outreach, sustained commitment to diversity, research, and policy change.

Orthopaedic Surgeon Density in South Africa.

BACKGROUND: In the era of global surgery, there are limited data regarding the available surgical workforce in South Africa. METHODS: This aim of this study was to determine the orthopaedic surgeon density in South Africa. This involved a quantitative descriptive analysis of all registered specialist orthopaedic surgeons in South Africa, using data collected from various professional societal national databases. RESULTS: The results showed 1.63 orthopaedic surgeons per 100,000 population. The vast majority were male (95%) with under two-thirds (65%) being under the age of 55 years. The majority of the orthopaedic surgeons were found in Gauteng, followed by the Western Cape and Kwa-Zulu Natal. The majority of specialists reportedly worked either full time or part time in the private sector (95%), and the orthopaedic surgeon density per uninsured population (0.36) was far below that of the private sector (8.3). CONCLUSION: Interprovincial differences as well as intersectoral differences were marked indicating geographic and socio-economic maldistribution of orthopaedic surgeons. This parallels previous studies which looked at other surgical sub-disciplines in South Africa. Addressing this maldistribution requires concerted efforts to expand public sector specialist posts as well as quantifying the burden of orthopaedic disease in both private and public sectors before recommendations can be made regarding workforce allocation in the future. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: IV.

Current Demographics and Roles of Florida Community Health Workers: Implications for Future Recruitment and Training.

The high prevalence of health disparity diseases (e.g., obesity, Type 2 diabetes) among underserved populations in the United States suggests the need for increased resources to prevent these diseases and to improve health care access and quality in underserved communities. Community health workers are valuable resources and facilitators of health care access and quality treatment. The purpose of the present study is to provide descriptive information about community health workers in Florida and to provide recommendations for improved training and expansion of community health workers' roles in research and intervention. The study participants were 396 adults (85.1% Female, 75.5% Community health workers) who completed the 2015 Florida Community Health Workers Census. Participants were recruited by the Health Council of South Florida through emails and phone calls to members of the Florida Community Health Worker Coalition and various organizations. It was found that several groups disproportionately affected by health disparities were underrepresented among the community health workers who participated in the census and among the communities served by these community health workers. Actions are needed to improve and increase the recruitment and training of community health workers in Florida.

Academic Partnerships: Preparing Nurse Practitioners for Underserved Populations.

Medically underserved populations suffer disproportionately from disease and poor health, and nursing schools are challenged to prepare nurse practitioner students to effectively care for underserved patients. This article describes one university's endeavor to create and evaluate academic partnerships with HIV/hepatitis C virus primary care clinics in underserved settings. Designated preceptorships and specific preparation of students tailored for this population via online modules were strategies created to increase students' readiness to practice as primary care providers and increase clinical placements for nurse practitioner students. Outcomes include student readiness to practice and student satisfaction with clinics and preceptors.

A community-based strategy in medical education of the university of the philippines manila-school of health sciences - Lessons from innovations in human resources for health development in a developing country.

Background: After nearly four decades of testing an innovative model for training health workers for marginalized communities, the evidence base for the impact of University of the Philippines Manila-School of Health Sciences (UPM-SHS) medical program needs to address important gaps. Has it succeeded in contributing toward socially accountable medical education where medical schools will be evaluated in terms of their contribution to society's health outcomes? To answer this question, this study examined human resources for health (HRH) inequity in the Philippines and reviewed the medical school's performance in terms of addressing HRH distribution. Methods: The evaluation of the school's performance was done through two phases. Phase 1 involved generating HRH inequity metrics for the Philippines through secondary data. Phase 2 involved gathering primary data and generating performance metrics for UPM-SHS. Results: We found challenges that UPM-SHS needs to address based on the analysis of its student admissions from 1976 to 2011: targeting the right underserved communities, especially at the municipal level; addressing issues of high leakage and undercoverage rates in the program; ensuring mechanisms for return service are in place at the community level; and tracking and measuring program outputs and impact on community health outcomes. Discussion: Given this study on the performance of UPM-SHS to produce a broad range of health workforce to address the needs of marginalized communities in the Philippines and in similarly situated countries, there is a need to reassess its HRH development strategy. If it wants to build a critical mass of transformational health leaders to meet the needs of poor communities as part of its social accountability mandate, it needs to accelerate this development process.

[Shortage of physicians in rural areas and in the public health service : A critical analysis of the evidence on the role of medical education and training]. / Ärztemangel in der hausärztlichen Versorgung auf dem Lande und im Öffentlichen Gesundheitsdienst : Eine kritische Analyse der Evidenz bezüglich der Rolle von Aus- und Weiterbildung.

BACKGROUND: A shortage of medical personnel has been seen for several decades in at least two sectors of the healthcare system: primary care in remote areas as well as medical care in the state public health departments (Öffentliches Gesundheitswesen). Strategies to reduce these problems are being sought. OBJECTIVE: This review examines the proposals, practical initiatives and empirical studies in under- and postgraduate medical education in order to estimate their potential impact on the solution of these problems. The analysis covers both Germany and Anglo-Saxon countries. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study is based on a literature search in PubMed and Medline covering the last 20 years. With regard to Germany, programmatic documents and studies published in the German Journal of General Practice (Zeitschrift für Allgemeinmedizin) were also included. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Foreign empirical studies identify almost equal two factors with regard to primary care in remote areas: the recruitment of students from rural areas combined with special educational programs with a rural primary care orientation both in under- and postgraduate medical education. These programs should include several and longer practical working periods in primary care units and be well coordinated between the medical school and the local teaching physicians. As for the state public health sector, comparable initiatives are still lacking.

Addressing health workforce shortages and maldistribution in Afghanistan.

BACKGROUND: Afghanistan has the second lowest health workforce density and the highest level of rural residing population in the Eastern Mediterranean Region. Ongoing insecurity, cultural, socio-economic and regulatory barriers have also contributed to gender and geographic imbalances. Afghanistan has introduced a number of interventions to tackle its health worker shortage and maldistribution. AIMS: This review provides an overview of interventions introduced to address the critical shortage and maldistribution of health workers in rural and remote Afghanistan. METHODS: A review of literature (including published peer-reviewed, grey literature, and national and international technical reports and documents) was conducted. RESULTS: The attraction and retention of health workforce in rural and remote areas require using a bundle of interventions to overcome these complex multidimensional challenges. Afghanistan expanded training institutions in remote provinces and introduced new cadres of community-based health practitioners. Targeted recruitment and deployment to rural areas, financial incentives and family support were other cited approaches. These interventions have increased the availability of health workers in rural areas, resulting in improved service delivery and health outcomes. Despite these efforts, challenges still persist including: limited female health worker mobility, retention of volunteer community-based health workforce, competition from the private sector and challenges of expanding scopes of practice of new cadres. CONCLUSIONS: Afghanistan made notable progress but must continue its efforts in addressing its critical health worker shortage and maldistribution through the production, deployment and retention of a "fit-for-purpose" gender-balanced, rural workforce with adequate skill mix. Limited literature inhibits evaluating progress and further studies are needed.