Self-selection and intermunicipal migration in Canada.

"This paper investigates individual intermunicipal migration behaviour in Canada within the context of a human capital model that adjusts for the migrant's selectivity in computing expected income gains. In addition to the typical regional determinants of migration, housing and labour market characteristics are found to influence intermunicipal migration significantly, the effects differing with age. Structural coefficients remained more or less stable during the decade 1971-1981. It is shown that the failure to adjust income gains for selectivity bias results in an underestimation of the migration-impacts of income gains and municipal-specific factors."

The underemployment of American rural women: prevalence, trends and spatial inequality.

PIP: The growing numerical significance of women in the US nonmetropolitan labor force has not been matched by parallel efforts to document the changing quality of their employment. In this paper. Lichter uses the labor utilization framework of Clogg and Sullivan to examine the prevalence and spatial convergence of various forms of female underemployment during 1970-1985. Data from the March annual demographic files of the Current Population Survey reveal that underemployment has been a significant aspect of the employment experiences of nonmetropolitan women during this period. There has been little evidence of spatial or sex convergence in labor market outcomes. Roughly 1 of every 3 rural female workers today is a discouraged worker, jobless, employed part-time involuntarily, or working for poverty-level wages. Moreover, rural women continue to suffer substantially higher levels of economic underemployment than urban women and rural men. This study reinforces the view that rural women remain a seriously underutilized labor resource in the US.^ieng

Population pressure, intensification of agriculture, and rural-urban migration.

"In this paper I provide an analytical basis for why labor absorption [in agriculture] may improve with higher population density. My argument is in two parts. First, analysing agriculture in isolation, I use the Boserup insight to show that higher population density is associated with more intensive techniques of land use. Second, using a two-sector model, I show that the rate of labor absorption (defined as the rate of natural population growth minus the rate of rural-urban migration) increases with the intensity of land use." Cross-sectional data for Iran are used to illustrate the model.

PIP: This paper considers the Malthusian implication that population density leads to the inability of agriculture to absorb labor. The argument is presented that higher population density is associated with more intensive techniques of land use, based on the Boserup model, and that the rate of labor absorption (natural population growth minus the rate of rural-to-urban migration) increases with the intensity of land use. The model reveals that the availability of jobs in urban areas slows agricultural intensification and increases migration. The Asian model is different in that urbanization and intensification occur simultaneously. The model is empirically tested with Iranian data. Results indicate negative signs for the intensity coefficients (irrigation ratio and cropping intensity), which means a negative influence on rural out-migration. Population density has a positive coefficient. The effect of the percentage of land tilled by tractors is positive, while the number of diesel pumps in operation reduces out-migration. The contrasting results of Annable, Bilsborrow, and Winegarden are considered plausible, since an intensification factor is not included and population density is picking up the negative effect of the intensity of cultivation. High rates of out-migration from low population density areas usually are explained by the poor natural resources available. It is argued that poor soil quality is related to cultivation intensity, and thus, soil fertility is exogenous. The results are intended not as a definitive proof of the direct effect of population density on agricultural employment, but as an alternative explanation for out-migration from low density areas. Population increases clearly cause declines in wages in the proposed model and may not lead to intensification but to out-migration. Increases in agricultural prices or lowering the cost of inputs can promote intensification. Population density will always reduce the potential of a region to absorb population. Government has the ability to influence public investment in agriculture and trading through its regulations, which can speed up intensification and the capacity to provide agricultural employment. Government can also indirectly encourage out-migration through the promotion of attractive urban labor markets.

Immigration from poor to wealthy countries: experience of the United States.

PIP: The U.S. experience with immigration from poor countries is examined using the results of two projects carried out by the National Bureau of Economic Research. Questions considered include what determines the supply of immigrants, how such immigrants fare in the U.S. job market, and how this immigration affects the prospects of native-born workers.^ieng

Gendered histories: garment production and migration in Mexico.

Data gathered in Aguascalientes during the 1990s are used to analyze how the garment industry in Mexico has responded to economic recession and trade liberalization. In particular, the relationship between industrial change and gendered patterns of migration are explored. The author concludes that "migration over recent years has increasingly allowed working women the possibility of entering a transnational labour force and given them important labouring and living experiences on both sides of the border."

Income, self-selection, and return and onward interprovincial migration in Canada.

"Estimated returns to migration based on comparison of individual migrants may be biased owing to self-selection in the migration process. Using data derived from the 1986 Canadian census, I will study the effects of expected wage differentials in determining the return or onward migration decision of nonnative adults aged 20 to 64 years. Evidence was found that return migrations were in the 'right' direction, as they are observed to respond to provincial economic variables (that is, average employment growth and income levels) in a rational manner. After accounting for self-selectivity, I found that...return migrants...are negatively selected, and experience lower income levels, following the return migration, than onward migrants would have, had they chosen the return migration option. This drop in expected wages decreases the propensity associated with making a return migration. Despite this drop in income, the large proportion selecting the return migration option suggests the importance of the province of birth in the mental map of nonnative migrants."

Re-thinking skilled international labour migration: world cities and banking organisations.

"Highly skilled professional and managerial labour migration has become an important facet of the contemporary world economy. The operations of transnational corporations have created more opportunities for skilled migrants to work abroad.... There is a growing interest amongst economic geographers to examine this form of migration through an appreciation of global economic restructuring, labour market change and world cities. Consequently, this paper introduces a new conceptual framework...[which] is based on the rationale that world cities, and the patterns of labour market demand that exist within them, are of paramount importance in influencing highly skilled professional and managerial labour migration within the world economy. The author uses an example of highly skilled labour migration within the transnational banking sector [in London] to illustrate this new conceptual framework."

Dual citizenship and political integration.

PIP: On the premise that representative government cannot properly function without the political participation of a large active segment of its constituents represented by permanent immigrants without citizenship, this article 1) reviews some attempts to resolve such an anomalous situation; 2) suggests naturalization as an instrument to correct it and describes the naturalization rate and the reasons for the low propensity for naturalization in various North European countries; 3) surveys the phenomenon of dual citizenship, the reasons for its increase as well as its increase as well as its inconveniences and advantages; and 4) hypothesizes that future increases in dual citizenship will protect political integration. Labor immigration will probably not be encouraged again, as it was some 20 years ago, but large international migration will take place both within Europe and to Europe from other continents. There are many indications that in the future many more Europeans will possess dual or multiple nationality, and this, in combination with more weight on a person's effective residence, will promote political integration of those large groups of immigrants and their descendants, who now stand outside the political systems without proper representation.^ieng

Job displacement effects of Canadian immigrants by country of origin and occupation.

"Some previous Canadian studies have shown that considering the labor market as a whole and also pooling all immigrants as a group, immigrants do not have any job displacement effects on the Canadian born. This study presents some new evidence. It disaggregates immigrants by country of origin and by occupation groups and provides an analysis of job displacement effects of immigrants on the native-born Canadians by these dimensions. The study finds that (1) U.S. immigrants and the Canadians are substitutes [for] competing groups in the labor market and the effect is quite significant; (2) Canadians and Europeans are competing groups in certain occupations, while they have complementary skills in others; and (3) immigrants from the Third World and the Canadians are slightly competing groups in certain occupations."

Birds of passage are also women.

PIP: Migrant women from poor countries represent a labor supply which is, at once, the most vulnerable, flexible and, at least in the beginning, the least demanding. They are incorporated into sexually segregated labor markets at the lowest stratum in high-tech industries or at the cheapest sectors in labor intensive industries. They bear the brunt of the ideology of racism and an insecure political and legal status as all migrants do, which along with gender discrimination and class exploitation, contribute to their vulnerability. For instance, after the 1974 halt on further labor immigration, the Western European receiving countries imposed either a complete ban or waiting periods for entry into the labor market for the spouces who joined migrants already in these countries. This regulation concerned non-EEC citizens, mostly women. In the absence of legitimate employment opportunities, these women turned to illegal employment. For employers, there are obvious advantages in hiring illegal labor--tax violation, flexibility, and non-application of labor legislation. Legally, these women are defined as dependents,' in keeping with the Western ideology where man is the breadwinner, whether this dependency is real or not. Thus, there stay is linked to the legal status of their migrant husbands. The work of native and migrant women do not always conform to the prevailing definition of 'work,' and therefore, not often recognized as an economic activity in data collection. In the process of migration and incorporation into waged employment, women may experience either increased exploitation, or, may gain greater independence and an awareness that their situation can be changed. The changes in women's position are a function of the socioeconomic and cultural context in which they take place, and are related to their role in production, social status in the place of origin, employment opportunities in the receiving areas for men as well as women, and finally, migration patterns and reasons for migration. Migration tends to be treated as a phenomenon involving young males seeking economic betterment. There is need for better understanding of migration of women.^ieng

Returning migrant characteristics and labor market demand in Greece.

Immigrants who repatriate bring with them modern work skills which many observers in labor exporting regions describe as a great contribution to the mother country. Using data from 2 samples of Greek repatriates as well as projections of industrial labor force demands in Greece for the 1980s, this article challenges this concept. The authors find that the uneven regional development and stunted industrial growth which pushed these workers abroad are also responsible for the narrowly limited employment options which they face once they repatriate. For the urban repatriate, the market is limited to unemployment, the urban informal sector and scattered jobs, while for the rural repatriate, small-scale agriculture, multiple job holdings and unemployment are the only viable options.

Recruitment of labor migrants for the Middle East: the Sri Lankan case.

"This article deals with the social, economic and demographic aspects of labor migration from Sri Lanka to the Middle East. The findings are based on a survey covering 891 return migrants and 866 family members of current migrants, as well as a total of 407 nonmigrants who were interviewed as a control group. Although the elasticity of the demand for female domestic personnel is much smaller than that for male migrants, it was found that recruitment for female labor migrants has increased considerably in recent years. The enormous demand for foreign employment has led to a thriving recruitment sector and to numerous illegal activities also among authorized employment agents. Currently, prospective labor migrants have to incur huge debts to finance migration."

Structural changes in the receiving country and future labor migration--the case of Kuwait.

PIP: This article describes changes in the volume, age and sex composition, retention, productivity, types of occupation, and economic sector of the labor force in Kuwait. The focus is on the structural changes in the indigenous labor force. Data were obtained from censuses and labor force surveys during 1965-93. Policies after the 1990 invasion pertained primarily to security of public employment sector among natives. Over 98% of private sector employment is among non-Kuwaitis. Government programs support high fertility. Female illiteracy has declined, and the proportion of women with a higher education has increased. Natives comprised 20.4% of the total labor force in 1993. About 90% of native males work in the public sector. 45% of total male employment is in the production sector. Around 50% of non-Kuwaiti males have been employed in production work over the decades. Over 90% of Kuwaiti females in 1993 worked in professional or clerical work. Over 50% of total female labor force participation is in the service sector. Concentration in the public sector increased for Kuwaitis and declined for non-Kuwaitis. Labor force participation declined with increasing age. Retirement benefits encouraged early retirement. The private sector is experiencing the departure of long-term migrants and more rapid turnover of labor. Hours of work are longer in the private sector. Kuwait is still dependent on foreign workers in the production and service industries. It is likely that native male workers will replace foreign workers in professional work and administrative/clerical work. Policies that will assure future reliance on imported labor include the assurance of government jobs for Kuwaitis, retirement rules, and the profitability of the trade in labor.^ieng

The making of an immigrant niche.

"This article speaks to the conceptual and methodological issues in research on the making of an immigrant niche through a case study of immigrant professionals in New York City government." The author argues that "the growth of this immigrant niche resulted from changes in the relative supply of native workers and in the structure of employment, which opened the bureaucracy to immigrants and reduced native/immigrant competition. These shifts opened hiring portals; given the advantages of network hiring for workers and managers, and an immigrant propensity for government employment, network recruitment led to a rapid buildup in immigrant ranks."

Income redistribution and migration.

"This paper analyses redistribution policies that transfer income between owners of immobile factors of production and workers in a given region. The menu of income distribution possibilities attainable through tax/transfer policy in the presence of labour mobility is characterized. Simple general equilibrium analysis shows that migration can lead to Pareto-inferior outcomes in the destination region if immigrants are the beneficiaries of redistributive transfers. All residents of the destination region may gain, however, if transfer payments are also paid to workers in the source region so as to reduce the level of immigration." (SUMMARY IN FRE)

"No TEBA...forget TEBA": the plight of Malawian ex-migrant workers to South Africa, 1988-1994.

"This article is about the process of socioeconomic transformation in rural Malawi. It examines the survival strategies and enterprising spirit of Malawian migrant workers and their households. It argues that the strategies of these people often went beyond survival in the provision of basic necessities.... In March 1988, the South African Chamber of Mines stopped a century-old tradition of recruiting migrant workers from Malawi. This has arrested and put to a halt a process of accumulation taking place in the households of the returned migrant workers in the rural economy. Thus, the effects of the retrenchment of the workers will spread from the migrant and his family through the economic and social wellspring of all sectors of rural communities and their commercial lives."

Immigrant qualifications: recognition and relative wage outcomes.

"One aim of this study is to examine the labor market outcomes of immigrants relative to the Australian born.... In particular, this article examines both the extent of formal nonrecognition of overseas qualifications and the indirect implications for wage outcomes of a lack of full recognition of qualifications. Immigrant relative wage analysis...is the subject of the second part of this article...."

Gender differences in the occupational status of undocumented immigrants in the United States: experience before and after legalization.

"This article examines the incorporation of a national sample of undocumented immigrants both before and after they applied to legalize their status under the provisions of the [U.S.] Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA). Data from the 1989 and 1992 Legalized Population Surveys (LPS-1 and LPS-2) are used. These surveys provide labor force and occupational data for three critical reference periods: as newly arrived undocumented immigrants, as experienced undocumented immigrants, and as documented immigrants.... The overall upward mobility of both men and women between first job and the occupation held at time of application for legalization continued after legalization. On average, men also continued to report higher status jobs than women, although women did somewhat better after their status was legalized." This is a revised version of a paper originally presented at the 1997 Annual Meeting of the Population Association of America.

Interurban flows of population and occupational skills to three cities in Nigeria.

"This article examines interurban flows of population and occupational skills to three cities in Nigeria. The analyses are based on sample survey data collected in the cities of Benin, Ibadan, and Kano in 1973 and 1974." The results indicate that most migrants were repeat movers, and that interurban migration predominated. However, whereas men brought a wide range of occupational skills, most women came with traditional-type skills or as housewives.

PIP: This article examines interurban flows of population and occupational skills to 3 cities in Nigeria. The analyses are based on 1973 and 1974 sample survey data collected in Benin, Ibadan, and Kano; the cities vary in population size and are located in 3 different urban growth regions of the country. This study examines the spatial and occupational experiences of male and female migrants in the 3 Nigerian cities. Multistaged probability cluster sampling procedures are used in each field exercise. Data indicate that few migrants are once-only movers, and many migrants make over 3 spatial moves. Of the migration streams, interurban movements are dominant; the majority of migrants to the city of Ibadan came from other cities of substantial size in the state. This suggests that African cities located in close proximity to other cities are more likely to attract interurban migrants than rural-to-urban migrants. Migrants brought a diverse mixture of occupational skills to the cities, influenced by their spatial experiences. Male migrants who made interurban moves brought modern sector type skills to the cities or came with educational training to embark on urban careers. The majority of women accompanied their families or spouses to the cities and came as housewives, traders, or farmers. The findings of this study are highly supportive of the proposed integrative approach of the forthcoming population policy. Integrated rural development programs that attempt to improve all aspects of life in rural areas are just 1 of several policies needed in Nigeria; population redistribution must also be a concern.

Immigration and the earnings of youth in the U.S..

"This article reports findings that have emerged from an effort made at statistically measuring the effects of immigration on the earnings of U.S.-born youth. The presence of immigrants arriving before 1965 has a positive impact on youth earnings. Recently arrived immigrants impact negatively, however. These results are consistent with recent findings that the skill level of immigrants arriving within the last two decades is lower relative to that of immigrants arriving earlier. The results also show that the negative effects diminish as the youth ages, reflecting skill acquisition and job mobility of the young worker into jobs less vulnerable to competition from immigrant workers."