[About history of surgeons hidden behind our daily surgical instruments: Retractors]. / De l'histoire des chirurgiens cachés derrières nos instruments du quotidien. Partie 2 : écarteurs.

Many surgical instruments are named after their inventors, acclaimed surgeons of the past, because of their discoveries and their contributions in the field of surgical techniques. However, these daily reminders of History of Surgery are often forgotten by the modern practitioners. We propose to review, through a selection of instruments, short biographies of these precursors. This second original article will focus on the inventors of modern retractors: von Langenbeck, Farabeuf, Leriche, Gillies and Tessier.

The Locksmith, the Surgeon, and the Mechanical Hand: Communicating Technical Knowledge in Early Modern Europe.

This article uses a locksmith's design for a mechanical hand in the surgeon Ambroise Paré's widely influential Oeuvres (1575) to examine the transmission of technical knowledge in early modern Europe. The article interprets Paré's chapter on artificial limbs through the lens of material culture, and then uses its findings to explore the movement of craft knowledge through print. A comparison between Paré's woodcut image of the prosthesis and an extant sixteenth-century mechanical hand from Kassel, Germany grounds Paré's woodcut in ongoing practices of making prosthetic technology. Analyzing the transmission of Paré's Oeuvres in light of the creative environment of artificial limb design and construction transforms our understanding of the potential utility of the printed image for different viewers. The dissemination of this woodcut design reveals a form of technical knowledge transfer that was endlessly adaptable to the experiences of artisans from different craft groups.

The Education of American Surgeons and the Rise of Surgical Residencies, 1930-1960.

In the first half of the twentieth century, the training of American surgeons changed from an idiosyncratic, often isolated venture to a standardized, regulated, and mandated regimen in the form of the surgical residency. Over the three critical decades between 1930 and 1960, these residencies developed from an extraordinary, unique opportunity for a few leading practitioners to a widespread, uniform requirement. This article explores the transformation of surgical education in the United States, focusing on the standardization and dissemination of residencies during this key period. Utilizing the archives of professional organizations, it shows how surgical societies initiated and forced reform in the 1930s. It demonstrates the seminal and early role taken by the federal government in the expansion of surgical residencies through incentivized policies and, especially, the growth of the Veterans Administration health system after World War II. Finally, an examination of intra-professional debates over this process illustrates both the deeper struggles to control the nature of surgical training and the importance of residency education in defining the midcentury American surgeon.

Remembering Dr. Frederick Griffith Pearson.

SUMMARY: Canada has lost a remarkable surgeon and leader. Dr. Frederick Griffith "Griff" Pearson, aged 90, died in Kitchener, Ont., on Aug. 10, 2016, surrounded by his wife, Hilppa Pearson, and his family.

Honour and subsistence: invention, credit and surgery in the nineteenth century.

The origins of contemporary exclusion of surgical methods from patenting lie in the complexities of managing credit claims in operative surgery, recognized in the nineteenth century. While surgical methods were not deemed patentable, surgeons were nevertheless embedded within patent culture. In an atmosphere of heightened awareness about the importance of 'inventors', how surgeons should be recognized and rewarded for their inventions was an important question. I examine an episode during the 1840s which seemed to concretize the inapplicability of patents to surgical practice, before looking at alternatives to patenting, used by surgeons to gain social and financial credit for inventions.

[The Japanese Colonial Medicine as Seen Through the Life of Fujita Tsuguakira].

Fujita Tsuguakira was a man who established Jahyeuiwon, a governmental medical facility, during the Residency-General Period and took over the presidency of a committee in the Japanese Government-General of Chosun after Chosun was annexed to Japanese. In addition, he is a man well qualified to be placed on the top of the list when discussing the Japanese colonial medicine in Chosun, considering his personal history of getting evolved in the colonial rule of Taiwan for seven years as an army surgeon. He led the colonial medicine in Chosun for nine years before and after the Japanese annexation of Korea. He was engaged in almost all the areas related to the colonial medicine such as anti-cholera projects, Hansung Sanitation Union, Deahan Hospital, Chosun Chongdokbu Hospital, Jahyeuiwon, medical schools affiliated to the Japanese Government-General of Chosun. In all respects, his life was in sync with the expansionist strategies of Imperial Japan. Especially, his deeds in Chosun was an "active aid to the instructions" from Army Minister Terauchi Masatake " as Sato Kozo testifies. Fujita was chosen by the military, and so he faithfully served the role given from it. The rewards that he received form the military attest to this fact. He took the position of Surgeon General in Army Medical Service on September, 1912, the top place that an army surgeon could hold. The position was first given to the officer who worked outside Japan proper, and he was the only army surgeon with no doctorial degree to receive such title except for Ishiguro Tadanori who was the first army surgeon in Japan. To sum up, Fujita was not a "doctor" but a "military officer". His walk of life mainly lay in the role of an aider adjusted to the ups and downs and the speeds of the plans of Imperial Japan to invade the continent. Therefore, the Japanese colonial medicine controlled by such man as Fujita in Chosun was inevitably studded with the military things. As a chief in the army medicine, what was important to him was the hospitals for managing the armed troops and projects for preventing infectious disease that could threaten the military sanitation. As a result, the medical service for those under the colonial rule was naturally put on the back burner. This study was conducted mainly based on Fujita's memoirs called Army Surgeon General Fujita Tsuguakira (1943), and accordingly it would be not without limitations. However, as he is a man who cannot be put aside when discussing the Japanese colonial medicine in Chosun, the records by this study of his life and past activities are expected to give no small amount of contribution to these discussions.

[Léopold Chauveau (1870-1940), a doctor, writer, painter and sculptor]. / Léopold Chauveau (1870-1940) médecin, écrivain, peintre et sculpteur.

Léopold Chauveau born in Lyon was a renowned writer during the years 1920-1930, then nearly forgotten. He was the son of Augustin Chauveau (1827-1917) the famous veterinary who had a leading role in the scientific life in the 19th century. Léopold Chauveau was particulary appreciated for his tales for kids. Some of his compilations were illustrated by his friend the painter Pierre Bonnard. His novels were published by the NRF so he was very closed to Gide, to Martin du Gard, to Eugene Dabit partners of this publishing house. At the first he was a medecine doctor, house doctor in Paris hospitals, ORL-surgeon, surgeon "beyond the fight" on the battle front during the WWI. But at that time greatly moved by the slaughter he had seen and by the deaths of his nearest and dearest : his wife and two of his four sons, he completely renounced his medical practice. He actually became writer, talented illustrator, monsters sculptor... He died exhausted during the debacle in 1940. His tales for children are a talk to little Renaud (his dead son) beyond the hereafter, they are an outled for one'sorrow. All these texts are now studied by specialists, republished, discovered by the Japanese. All his books and novels are very sensitive,full of a philo- sophic spirit and a delicious imagination. His pictures are outstanding.

Prof. Ioan Jianu: founding member of SICOT.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, Romania witnessed the rise of some brilliant doctors. One of them was Prof. Ioan Jianu, also known in the scientific world as Jean Jiano, whose career was dedicated to medicine and training young generations of doctors. He was one of the founding members of SICOT, at the first meeting held in 1929 at the Hotel de Crillon in Paris, representing Romania. He was a main figure in Romanian surgery, pioneering in the fields of traumatology, reconstructive and plastic surgery and also showing interest in replantation surgery. He also founded the first laboratory of experimental surgery in Romania and two professional associations.

[From the Local to the Global: French Military Surgeons, Algeria, and "Tropical Pathologies" (1830-1880)]. / Du local au global: Les médecins militaires français, l'Algérie et les "maladies des pays chauds" (1830-1880).

Up to the 1860s, understanding of the disease consists first of a reflection on the ground and the situation of people on this place. This includes the writing of medical topographies and the development of a new science: medical geography. How could extra-European territories contribute to this knowledge and how this knowledge about tropics and their pathologies could contribute to the formation of an epidemiological reflection at a global level? This contribution tries to suggest the role of military doctors in this process, the importance of Algeria in this intellectual training and, finally, how this work on the "hot" countries contributed to the structuring of a professional identity.

An Account of ... William Cullen: John Thomson and the Making of a Medical Biography.

John Thomson's An Account of the Life, Lectures and Writings of William Cullen (1832; 1859) remains a primary source for the career of the most influential academic physician in eighteenth-century Scotland and is also a significant work of medical history. But this multi-authored text, begun around 1810 by the academic surgeon, John Thomson, but only completed in 1859 by Dr David Craigie, has its own complex history. This chapter addresses what this history can reveal about the development of medical biography as a literary genre. It argues that the Account is a hybrid work shaped by a complex array of practical, domestic, intellectual, and professional pressures, as Thomson, in seeking to bolster his own career, was caught between the demands of Cullen's children for a traditional "Life" and his own more theoretical and socio-cultural interests.

[In the footsteps of Dr. François Ribes, surgeon of the 1st division of the so-called ambulance of the battlefield]. / Sur les traces du docteur François Ribes, chirurgien de la 1ère division d'ambulance dite du champ de bataille.

François Ribes was a surgeon at Emperor Napoleon's so called ambulance of the battle field but he is not well known despite his high offices. On his record of service there are 20 battles, 17 fights and 3 sieges during the Revolution and Empire. Beside his numerous campaigns he was a surgeon at the parisian Invalides Hospital and was highly thought of as a good anatomist. He wrote 84 articles and 47 memoirs of which the best known is entitled History of the autopsy and embalming of Louis XVIII's corpse. However, as a health officer, he only wrote 40 pages about his military campaigns, published in 1845.

Gertrude Herzfeld: The woman who dared to be a surgeon.

Gertrude Marianne Amalia Herzfeld (1890-1981), the first practicing female surgeon in Scotland, overcame bias against women in medicine and pediatric specialists in surgery. After her graduation from the University of Edinburgh Medical School (1914), she became the first female house surgeon at the Royal Hospital for Sick Children, Edinburgh. In 1920, she became the first practicing woman surgeon to become a Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. She left a handful of publications in pediatric surgery: a "radical cure" for inguinal hernia, i.e., early surgery (1925); a review of abdominal surgery in infancy and childhood (1937); surgery for the acute abdomen (1939); and intestinal obstruction (1945). They offer a twenty-year window into how children's surgery was once practiced, when operations were done in patients' homes, and decisions for operation depended solely on the history and physical exam without laboratory testing and radiological imaging. As a series of snapshots over two decades, they reveal how her practice evolved in such areas as fluid resuscitation and radiological reduction of intussusception. She remained steadfast to a careful physical examination and early operation. While she did not document her practice in the care of children with ambiguous genitalia and intersex conditions, she approached the formidable anatomic, psychological, and social challenges of her patients and their families with patience and understanding. Herzfeld was devoted to the care of yet another marginalized population that today is subsumed by the acronym LGBTQIA, yet another area where she was far ahead of her time. Level of evidence: Level VII.

Everything Old is New Again: Applying the Lessons from Halsted's Life and Work to Today's Surgical Landscape.

The name of Dr William Halsted is synonymous with innovation and excellence in surgery. The life of Dr Halsted, although known for both accomplishments and personal challenges, continues to provide valuable insight as to how we, as 21st century surgeons, might best address today's surgical challenges. The following manuscript details some of the ways in which Dr Halsted's life and teachings provide important lessons that remain relevant even today. Few names in surgery are as well-known as that of Dr William Halsted. Halsted is generally regarded as one of the most, if not the most innovative and influential surgeon in history. His life story and his many contributions to the field surgery have been the subject of numerous manuscripts, books, and Presidential addresses. In addition to his many contributions to surgical science, Halsted is credited with the development of the structure of the modern surgical residency program. Now, despite the dynamic and ever-changing landscape of surgery, many of Halsted's teachings remain applicable today. In fact, one could argue that many of the challenges faced in surgery today are due to a departure from these principles as they were originally described. In the following discussion, the teachings of Halsted will be explored and the Halsted philosophy applied to propose solutions for today's modern surgical challenges.

William Wadd's clinical studies and portraiture.

In his time, William Wadd (1776-1829) was a well-known and well-respected surgeon and writer. He was also a very good visual artist who made his own anatomical illustrations. The subject of this paper is a set of drawings by Wadd in the collection of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. The drawings appear to be clinical studies, but what is most striking about them is the way in which they make use of the conventions of portraiture from that time. In an era before standardised, artistically neutral illustrations, they provide an excellent example of how medicine and the fine arts were interrelated in the production of knowledge.