[The professions of colonial pharmacist in French West Africa]. / Les métiers de pharmacien colonial en Afrique occidentale française.

During the twentieth century, French colonial rule in West Africa was marked by the establishment of a homogeneous health organization in the colonies. It was based on the health service of the colonial troops, the hospital service under the general service and other services such as health police, epidemics and hygiene. This health system made it possible to protect the colonizers and indigenous populations from the major endemics of the time, to conduct research on new diseases hitherto unrecognized and to bring "civilization" to the overseas territories. The pharmacist's missions in the colonial health system were manifold. Our study aims to shed light on the profession of colonial pharmacist in the health history of French West Africa. To do this, it concerned the period between the creation of the Federation of French West Africa (1895) and the end of colonization (1960). Drawing on the available documentation, including archival material and bibliographic sources, this article shows that the colonial pharmacist was already exercising a multidisciplinary profession. He was in fact hospital manager, wholesaler-distributor, pharmacy, biologist, chemist, botanist, teacher, central actor in public health.

"Physician's prescriptions accurately prepared" - The Mid-Nineteenth-Century Prescription Books of Four Gloucester Chemists.

Britain's mid-nineteenth-century healthcare economy has often been described as a "medical marketplace" in which struggling doctors faced intense competition from a range of unqualified rivals. Chemists and druggists, who proliferated in industrial cities and supposedly prospered by exploiting the poor and the gullible, are widely regarded as having presented a serious threat to medical livelihoods. However, the activities of four Gloucester chemists show how the dispensing of medical prescriptions brought individual chemists and doctors closer together. Competition between chemists and druggists for this trade was intense and it was instrumental in establishing them as trusted community pharmacists and giving impetus to the process of professionalization. Prescription books, an under-represented source in the literature, also show that customers for prescription medicines were surprisingly socially diverse and that most prescriptions were collected by women, with significant variation in dispensing activity through the week. This, and the volume of prescriptions being dispensed, suggest prescription medicines were regularly being used to treat chronic and less serious ailments, where collection could await normal shopping days. Significantly, prescriptions were the property of the patients and could be re-presented whenever they thought fit. For some patients, it thus effectively became an instrument of self-medication.

Pharmacists among Members of the Czech-Moravian Capuchin Province.

Based on a profound examination and evaluation of archival materials, the paper reconstructs the lives of eighteen pharmacists - members of the Czech-Moravian Capuchin Province from the 17th to the 19th century, of which sixteen served as monastic pharmacists. In addition to the identified biographical data (based on archival materials), the Latin summary reports on the life of a particular capuchin on the occasion of his death (the so-called elogia) from the Capuchin Provincial Chronicle (Annales capucinorum) are edited, together with their commented Czech translation. The discovered data allow a deeper insight into the pharmaceutical history of the Czech-Moravian Capuchin Province, where three monastic pharmacies were operated in Brno, Prague in Hradčany and Olomouc, and also a monastic pharmaceutical study was established. The published material also provides some new data on contemporary pharmaceutical practice, which are set in the context of literature. The paper illustrates the transfer of knowledge between the world of secular and monastic pharmacy at the places where future monastic pharmacists received their education (the pharmacies “The White Eagle” in Karlovy Vary, the pharmacy of brothers hospitallers in Prostějov, “The Golden Eagle” in Opava, “The White Unicorn” in the Old Town of Prague). The paper also highlights the intensive involvement of monastic pharmacists in the management of plague epidemics in the years 1680-1713 (often at the cost of their own lives), as well as the above-standard proximity to the patients in monastic hospitals in carrying out routine nursing and pharmacy practice. The paper adds sharper contours to the image of the pharmacist at that time by detailing the life stories of individual pharmacists (e.g., the previous career as a military surgeon and the iconographic circumstances of death, or the career extension in the form of participation in the order meetings in Rome). Analysis of the preserved manuscript Annotationes medicae Fr. Absolonis from the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries not only introduces an interesting pharmaceutical memorabilia, but also illustrates the professional maturation of the last Capuchin pharmacist. In the final part of the paper, the data about twenty-two pharmacists who unsuccessfully tried to join the Capuchin Order are given. It not only demonstrates admission practice in the Capuchin order, in which spiritual interest outweighed the practical, but also bears witness to other pharmaceutical phenomena of the time, such as the fate of the pharmacist from the abolished Jesuit Order or the development of pharmacy in the Carthusian monastery in Valdice.

Pharmacy, pharmacists and drugs in the Terezín ghetto.

The article describes the phenomenon of a pharmacy in the Jewish ghetto in Terezín (Theresienstadt) in connection with the local healthcare system and the history of this ghetto. It lists the names of the Czechoslovak Jewish pharmacists who passed through this ghetto, including their fates, whether they survived or were murdered in extermination concentration camps or died as a result of the cruel living conditions in the ghetto. The article discusses the fate of the so-called Mischlingskinder ("mixed children", i.e., persons deemed to have both "Aryan" and Jewish ancestry) and "Aryan" men and women from the so-called "mixed" marriages. In a separate section, the attention is also paid to the fate of Jewish pharmacists from Germany and Austria. In all chapters, the data illustrated by the fate of some pharmacists are stated. Key words: Jews pharmacy Terezín ghetto pharmacist shoah.

Activities of Latvian pharmacists in the Latvian Red Cross organization in exile in Germany (1945-1976).

The Latvian Red Cross has performed its assistance mission outside the territory of Latvia for several decades. In the 40-s of the 20th century, the state of Latvia and its people went through one of the most tragic pages of their history. Due to the re-occupation made by the Soviet Union in 1944, many people of Latvia fled to exile and under exile conditions the Latvian societies, parishes and public organizations came into being, including the Latvian Red Cross. It started its activities in the second part of the 40-s of the 20th century in Germany and then representative offices emerged in the U.S.A., Sweden, France, Italy, Denmark, Belgium, Australia, New Zealand. Special attention should be paid to the fact that the activity under exile conditions was of a large scale, well-organized and long-lasting. Substantial work at that time has been done by a number of pharmacists. Among them, the pharmacist and doctor Hugo Skudins (1903-1976) should be emphasized, who organized the purveyance of medication and sending them to Latvians in the occupied Latvia and to the penal camps in Siberia.

[The image of a good pharmacist in the works of Saladin di Ascoli and Valerius Cordus]. / Obraz dobrého lekárnika v diele Saladina z Ascola a Valeria Corda.

Separation of pharmacy from medicine induced the requirements formulation for an ideal pharmacist. Two prominent authors did so, Saladin di Ascoli (the first half of the XVth century) in the work Compendium aromatariorum (1488) and Valerius Cordus (1515-1544) in the work Dispensatorium pharmacopolarum (1546). Both of them formulate similar postulates of both professional and ethical nature, namely a knowledge of Latin, good education, experience, good character traits, need of satisfied marriage; both say that the pharmacist is required to be a good Christian, they condemn alcohol, relationships with women, poisons and abortifacients, remember right relationship to money. In addition, Cordus adds a good financial situation. Their considerations had a great impact on further development of pharmacy across Europe.Key words: Saladin di Ascoli Valerius Cordus ideal pharmacist.

[The fate of Jewish pharmacists from the Czech Lands during the holocaust]. / Osudy zidovských farmaceutu z ceských zemí behem holocaustu.

The authors describe the lives of several Jewish pharmacists and their families who lived and worked in the Czech Lands during the years 1918-1945. Their stories represented a typical mosaic, which corresponds to the fate of the Jewish community in the Czech Lands during World War II - all lost their property and the majority of them were murdered or lost their immediate families. Only a few of them succeeded to survive thanks to early emigration. Some of them lived until the liberation of the concentration camp Theresienstadt, too.Key words: Jews pharmacy shoah concentration camp Auschwitz.

[Charles Ménière (1816-1887) : pharmacist and historian of the pharmacists who were in practice in the town of Angers].

Charles Ménière (1816-1887) was the young brother of the doctor Prosper Menière (1799-1862), who was the obstetrician of the Duchess of Berry, the doctor in chief of the deaf-mute Institution and an erudite ear specialist. Charles learned pharmacy in Paris. Coming back to Angers he bought a chemist's shop. In 1871 he became the chief pharmacist of the Hôtel-Dieu. In 1857 he joined the Academic Society of Angers and presented many consequent papers between them one can find notes concerning the history of the Angers's pharmacists. Its researches relate to pharmacology, mineralogy, hydrology and even philology.

Profile: Joseph Marek: 2016-17 ASCP President.

It was four months in Alaska, in the middle of winter, that changed Joseph Marek's view of what it means to be a pharmacist. Marek was on his last rotation in pharmacy school when he experienced the kind of practice that he wanted for himself. He found that kind of practice as a consultant pharmacist, and next month, Marek, 49, will become the 2016-2017 president of the American Society of Consulting Pharmacists. Working at the Public Health Service (PHS) in the Arctic Circle in 1990, he dispensed and carried out clinical duties with the chief pharmacist and provided care to the native Inuit population through the Indian Health Service. "PHS had a walk-in clinic where the physicians worked closely with the pharmacist to do medication management for the patients," he said. The pharmacists also provided medications to the surrounding villages (50,000 square miles) and had to coordinate the dispensing/delivery of these medications when the physicians visited them. "The doctors highly valued the pharmacists' clinical knowledge, and it was a great environment to learn how to collaborate with the medical/health care team to benefit the Inuits," he said. "Everyone worked together and you could see the outcomes quickly."

[The apothecaries of the Saint-Honoré district of Paris in the 17th century. The apothecaries Antoine and Jacques Grégoire and Louis XIII's first painter, Simon Vouet].

This article presents the biographies of the apothecaries who lived in the Rue Saint-Honoré in Paris in the 17th century. Two major facts emerge from this study. The first concerns the formation of a family network involving the apothecaries and the royal artists. The apothecaries Antoine and Jacques Grégoire became allied with Simon Vouet, the first painter of Louis XIII . Links were also made between Antoine Grégoire and Jacques Sarazin, the King's sculptor, and then with Michel Corneille, painter to the King. The famous painting by Simon Vouet hanging in the assembly hall of the Faculty of Pharmacy in Paris is probably the fruit of his collaboration with Jacques Grégoire, his brother-in-law and an erudite botanist. The other notable fact concerns the relations between Anne de Furnes, widow of Antoine Brulon, the rich apothecary to the King Antoine Brulon, and Molière, both in Paris and in the village of Auteuil. The other notable fact concerns the relations between Anne de Furnes, widow of Antoine Brulon, the rich apothecary to the King Antoine Brulon, and Molière, both in Paris and in the village of Auteuil.

[Notes on a medieval apothecary : Ernulf, a spice merchant from Rennes during the XIIIth Century].

The recent publication of the cartulary of Saint-Melaine abbey in Rennes allowed to deepen our knowledge of the city of Rennes and of the entire region of Upper Brittany. Amidst the hundreds of people's names that were conserved, appears that of Ernulf, piperarius, that we can translate by "pepper" and that we can connect by extension to the world of pharmacists. By chance, the preservation of Middle Ages sources enables us to find his trace in documents from Brittany but also from Anjou. Although it remains impossible to write his biography, the mention of Ernulf in several medieval texts enables us to assess our knowledge on health in Brittany during the Middle Ages. Most of all, these medieval acts quote the oldest " pharmacist" known in the Breton peninsula.

[Guislain Decrombecque (1797-1870) and Alfred Wagon (1849-1928) originally of Auguste Béhal career (1859-1941)?]

Auguste Béhal (1859-1941), Maître de Conférences (Assistant Professor) at the Sorbonne then Full Professor at the School of Pharmacy (Paris), leads many vocations among these students (Blaise, Delaby, Delepine, Detoeuf, Fourneau, Sommelet, Tiffeneau, Valeur, etc.). However, why is he embraced the vocation chemist organic chemist ? This choice is undoubtedly dictated by the meeting of Adolphe Wurtz (1817-1884) and Charles Friedel (1832-1899) who made mature in him a passion for chemical research during his formation. Nevertheless, the historical context of the city of Lens, a modest city of 2.500 inhabitants in the north of France, and the influence of two other characters : Guislain Decrombecque (1797-1870), agronomist, and Alfred Wagon (1849-1928), 2nd class pharmacist, are also noteworthy. We will outline how these two people have directly and indirectly contributed to the Béhal career.

[Theophile-Jules Pelouze (1807-1867) was one of the French pharmacists who has the most contributed to the evolution of the organic chemisty in the first half of the 19th century]. / Théophile-Jules Pelouze (1807-1867) Un pharmacien pionnier de la chimie organique.

Through some examples of his works, realized between 1833 and 1845 (studies on the tannin, the reaction of etherification, and on the nature of the chemical function of the glycerin), this article tries to bring to light his scientific approach. This one is not only based on the immediate analysis and the elementary analysis, but also on the study of characteristic chemical reactions, which are going to give him information onto the chemical nature and the constitution of the molecules which he studies. This approach will lead him finally to use these reactions not only in an analytical purpose but also in a purpose of synthesis.

[How to become a pharmacist via the medical juries, during the Consulate and the Empire]. / Devenir pharmacien par la voie du jury médical durant le Consulat et l'Empire.

The law of Germinal an XI organized the education of pharmacists. It offered two different pathways to become a pharmacist. The first one needed three years in a pharmacy followed by three years of courses in a School of Pharmacy (located in Paris, Montpellier or Strasbourg) and the examination had to be passed in the School. The second one needed eight years in a pharmacy followed by an examination in front of a Medical jury. Medical juries were organized in every department and were composed by three physicians and four pharmacists. An interesting document, a book gathering together all the preparations realized during years 1811, 1812, 1813, collected by Claude Duméril in many departments, will allow to study what had been asked to the candidates in Rouen, in 1813, and what were reference pharmacopoeias used.

[Crossed paths of two pharmacists in the French Resistance: Jean-François Salomon and Paul-Antoine Joanny]. / Itinéraires croisés de deux pharmaciens résistants: Jean-François Salomon et Paul-Antoine Joanny.

Born in 1922, Jean-François Salomon--originating from Erstein (Bas-Rhin)--and Paul-Antoine Joanny--originating from Besse-en-Chandesse (Puy-de-Dôme)--begin together their higher education at the "full exercise school of pharmacy" of the University of Clermont-Ferrand (where the University of Strasbourg found refuge from 1940 to 1945). They met again for their officinal initiation training period at the same pharmacist, Mr. Robin, who helped them join the Resistance fighters. They entered thus the movement "Combat". After the war, they kept close family ties--since J.-F. Salomon married in 1949 Yvette Lucienne Joanny, precisely P.-A. Joanny's sister--as well as a shared geographical attachment, in as far as both of them set up as pharmacists in the Auvergne. J.-F. Salomon fulfilled even heavy responsabilities for the National pharmaceutical association in his region of adoption, whereas P.-A. Joanny annexed to his own pharmacy two herbalist's shops without holder.

[The union of three families of apothecaries in Paris in the 17th and 18th centuries--The apothecaries François Pihoué, François Regnault, Henry Charas and Marie Fourneau]. / Alliances de trois familles d'apothicaires de Paris aux XVII(e) et XVIII(e) siècles: les apothicaires François Pihoué, François Regnault, Henry Charas et Marie Fourneau.

The family network started with Marie Fourneau, daughter of the apothecary Jacques Fourneau, married successively two apothecaries first François Pihoué and then François Regnault and whose only daughter Marie Anne married the apothecary Henry Charas grandson of the famous apothecary Moyse Charas.

[A short biography of Paul Bonét-Maury (1900-1972) or parallel lives of a pharmacist: researcher and judoka]. / Une courte biographie de Paul Bonét-Maury (1900-1972) ou les vies parallèles d'un pharmacien: chercheur et judoka.

Pharmacist by training, doctor in sciences and student of Marie Curie, he will be between 1925 and 1965 one of the pioneers of radiobiology, science of the study of the interaction between ionizing radiations and living matter. He will be the initiator of the teaching on the use of radioelements in medicine and pharmacy. At the same time as he develops a scientific work of international level, he makes a commitment prematurely in the judo of which he will be one of the first four French black belts. He founds in 1946 the French Federation of this sport of which he will be president until 1956, year from which he becomes a general secretary of the International Federation of Judo until 1971.

India's Medico-Pharmaceutical Inheritance from the Colonial Period.

The development of pharmacy in India did not make sufficient headway during the British colonial period. The status of the pharmaceutical inheritance from the colonial era may be summarized as follows: There were around one hundred qualified pharmacists. The Health Survey and Development Committee (1943-45) put the number at 75. The number of compounders was nearly 27,000. They were inadequately qualified and were not counted as pharmacists. A large number of them worked in governmental hospitals. But for some missionary hospitals there was hardly any institutionalized pharmacy else-where. The drug distribution was in the hands of chemists and druggists who were not professionally qualified. The provision of drugs largely remained a trade. The drug industry was in its infancy. The yearly turnover was just 100 million rupees for a country as vast as India. The Drugs Rules 1945 under the Drug Act 1940 had been formulated but their implementation was yet to be effected. Some groundwork had been done on legislation for the control of pharmacy but the bill had yet to be enacted. There were three pharmacy degree-awarding institutions. The Banaras Hindu University and the Panjab University had instituted B. Pharm. courses in 1937 and 1944, with yearly intake of 20 and 5 students, respectively. The L. M. College of Pharmacy at Ahmedabad, then with the Bombay University, had their first admissions in 1947. Two diploma-level pharmacy courses existed at the Madras Medical College and the Medical College, Vishakapatnam, in the Madras Presidency; the yearly intake was very small. The country's entire pharmaceutical legacy from the colonial rule portrays the poor state of pharmacy practice that came with independence. The higher status of pharmacy as seen today is the result of sustained efforts made over the last fifty years. The chemists and druggists of the earlier period were not a qualified group--they were more concerned with protecting their trade interests and lacked the professional component. Thus the development of the profession constituted a formidable task. Once it became evident that inadequate attention had been paid to the pharmaceutical component of the new health care system during the colonial period--within pharmaceutical circles during the early part of the twentieth century--change began to take place, with the establishment of the Drugs Enquiry Committee recognized as the most significant event of the time. The Report was submitted by the Committee in 1931, laying the foundation of the drugs and pharmacy statutes and development of the pharmacy profession in general. It was a coincidence that the year 1931 also witnessed an occurrence of potential significance; that was, the entry of Mahadeva Lal Schroff, a man with an indomitable spirit, into the pharmaceutical arena to lead and direct the making of modern pharmacy in India.