[Public health services and healthcare workforce in Bakar of the 18th and 19th century]. / Javnozdravstvena sluzba i zdravstveni djelatnici u Bakru tijekom XVIII. i XIX. stoljeca.

This review article draws on scarce and poorly studied archival information and several published articles to describe the development and organisation of public health services in the town of Bakar over the 18th and 19th century. For a short while at the turn of the 19th century, Bakar established a hospital run by two physicians and one surgeon to treat patients affected by the so called Skrljevo disease, an endemic type of syphilis. As the century went on, the number of healthcare providers increased by two more physicians, four surgeons, and three to six licensed midwives. There was also a town pharmacy, that worked all that time. As a busy port, the town also provided well-organised maritime sanitary services. As its economy changed over the two centuries to come to a halt after an initial boom, which resulted in a severe drop in population from 7600 to 2000 people, public services deteriorated, including public health. Maritime services suffered the hardest blow, while the workforce gradually came down to one or two physicians and surgeons and several midwives.

[A comparative study on Koii (public doctor) system and its effect on public health in colonial Taiwan and Korea].

Koii(Public Doctor) System introduced into Taiwan in 1896 for the purpose of filling up medical vacuum of rural area and therefore spreading modern medical system all over Taiwan, was transplanted in 1913 into Colonial Korea for the same purpose. In terms of system itself Koii system in both areas were almost the same, but quite different in practices. First, Koiis in Taiwan was forced to write concrete medical report every month on the medical situation in the area under jurisdiction, whereas to those in Korea writing monthly report was not so compulsory. This difference resulted in some gaps in the quality of medical statistics of the two areas. Second, Unlike their counterparts in Korea, Koiis in Taiwan organized their own associations both locally and nationally and it helped to build up their own networks and share informations on medical situation including informations on infectious diseases. Third, Koiis in Taiwan formed more harmonious relationship between Taiwanese Police than their counterparts in Korea, which helped them to execute various medical activities in more comfortable environment. Taiwanese People went to medical institutions a lot more frequently than Korean People, and this difference was basically derived from the quite different density of Koii assignment in both areas. Korean People had to spend more time and money to utilize modern medical institutions than Taiwanese People did. The different density of Koii assignment also affected the results of prevention and eradication of infectious diseases; in Taiwan plague and small-pox has been successfully controled, whereas Chosun Government general was not so successful in controling infectious diseases including small-pox. Small-pox infected in Korea was about 6 times to Taiwan, and the number of death by small-pox was 9 times to Taiwan. One of the keys to this difference is the different role of Koiis. In Korea, Koiis could do little thing about infectious diseases mainly because of manpower shortage, thus shifting their duties like vaccination onto police officers who was inevitably inferior to doctors in medical terms, whereas vaccination was led by Koiis in Taiwan, with the help of police officers and traditional doctors. The difference between Korea and Taiwan in terms of Koii system and its effect implies that public health network in colonial Taiwan was better organized and more stable than that in colonial Korea, and therefore we should be careful about applying the concept of disciplinary power or modernization theory to colonial medical history of Korea.

Lessons learned? Nurses and health demonstration projects in New York City, 1920-1935.

This historical case study looks at two foundation-funded health demonstration projects in New York City from 1920 to 1935. It specifically examines the disciplinary interests, the work, and the aspirations of nurses and social workers as they tried to provide coordinated and cost-effective care to the individuals and families with whom they worked. It attends to the processes--not just the outcomes--involved in the coming together and moving apart of the different organizations, disciplinary interests, knowledge domains, and spheres of public and private responsibilities involved in caring for those in need. It locates the problems of coordination within disciplinary tensions as nurses and social worker--working within a web of gender, class, race, and power--sought to advance their own disciplinary interests even as they searched for better ways to care for the families in their charge.

[The becoming of public medicine in the second half of XVIII-first half of XIX centuries. Report II. The development of public systems of training of medical manpower and charity provision to socially unprotected groups of population].

The present report considers the history of becoming of concept of medical police in second half of XVIII century. This concept became one of the most important instruments of public management in Austria, France, Prussia and Russia. Two directions of activity of public authorities in the area of implementation of medical police are discussed i.e. control of frauds and development of public systems of training of medical manpower and charity provision to socially unprotected groups of population. The historiographical data is presented concerning the development of public systems of training of medical manpower, reform of university medical education, implementation of hospital reform.

[The becoming of public medicine (second half of XVIII-first half of xix centuries). Report I: The origin of concept of medical police, governing bodies of medical sanitary business, physician sanitary legislation].

The present report covers the history of origination of concept of medical police in the second half of XVIII century. This body became one of the most important tool of state governance in Austria. France, Prussia and Russia. The relationship between origin of this concept and the results of scientific studies in area of investigation of epidemic constitutions is demonstrated. Two directions of activity of bodies of state governance are considered concerning the implementation of medical police--imposition of public administration of activities of physicians and development by joint efforts of physicians and lawyers of special physician sanitary legislation.

The 'Korean' Resolution of the Doctorless Village Crisis and the Entanglement with the Conscription System in South Korea in the 1950s-70s.

This article reviews how the crisis of doctorless villages in South Korea in the 1950s-70s was closely linked to the conscription system. In the second half of the twentieth century, South Korea's public health system faced a dual challenge: the colonial legacy of medical shortage and urban concentration, and the massive conscription of military doctors after the Korean War. The term 'doctorless village' was a signifier that reflected these historical contexts, symbolizing the chronic medical crisis in rural areas. Behind the crisis, there as a growing idea of reversing the constraints from conscription and using it as a solution for the doctorless village problem. Initially, the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs planned two alternatives to fill the gaps in the public health network. One was to station military doctors in doctorless villages, and the other was to dispatch civilian doctors in doctorless villages and exempt them from military service. After a series of doctor mobilizations since the May 16 coup, the medical community generally agreed with this plan and publicized it. They developed arguments for alternative services through public health work and strengthened its logic. By the 1970s, the plan culminated in the establishment of the current Public Health Doctor system. In terms of condition and momentum, the introduction of alternative service in other sectors, as well as the extension of the consensus among the government and medical community, accelerated this trend. As a result, the doctorless village crisis in South Korea, which had been a critical issue for a quarter of a century, entered a phase of resolution by utilizing the conscription system as its institutional foundation. It represented an aspect of the 'Korean' public health system characterized by the entanglement with conscription. However, another aspect to consider is that it has imposed additional limitation on medical care in rural areas by institutionalizing the public health system relying on mobilization and minimum budget.

Development of the School of Nursing, Midwifery, and Public Health at Siriraj, Thailand 1896-1971: a historical study.

This study examined the history and development of the first nursing school in Thailand. Data were collected using a historical methodology through a review of related literature, as well as interviews with senior nurses. All data were clustered and categorized by using content analysis and an historical lens. The results revealed that the School development was divided to three periods: the School development in 1896-1925 (the foundation of modern Thai nursing); 1926-1955 (the influence of American medical and nursing education); and 1956-1971 (the transfer of a hospital-based training to university-based nursing education). In the final period, there was recognition that was associated with the professionalization of nursing, as the School initiated a bachelor degree in nursing and became the Faculty of Nursing. Through this long development, the School has progressively assisted Thai nursing to become a strong profession with international standards and recognition. The results of this study add significantly to the history of nursing in Thailand, and help nurses internationally to appreciate the efforts that have continued to sustain their noble profession.

[The scientific practical input of Zemstvo physician N.I. Teziakov into the development of sanitary service in Saratovskaya gubernia].

The article considers, in historical perspective, the short biographic data relating to Zemstvo physician N.I. Teziakov. The major issues concerning the development of sanitary service in Saratovskaya gubernia in the beginning of XX century are covered. The scientific practical input of N.I. Teziakov into the development of zemstvo medicine and sanitary work is demonstrated.

Remaking the medico-legal scene: a social history of the late-Victorian coroner in Oxford.

There have been wide-ranging debates about medicine and the law encapsulated in the figure of the coroner in Victorian England. Recently the historical literature on coroners has been enriched by macro-studies. Despite this important research, the social lives of coroners and their daily interactions remain relatively neglected in standard historical accounts. This article redresses that issue by examining the working life of the coroner for Oxford during the late-Victorian era. Edward Law Hussey kept very detailed records of his time in office as coroner. New research material makes it feasible to trace his professional background, from doctor of the sick poor, to hospital house surgeon and then busy coroner. His career trajectory, personal interactions, and professional disputes, provide an important historical prism illuminating contemporary debates that occupied coroners in their working lives. Hussey tried to improve his medico-legal reach and the public image of his coroner's office by reducing infanticide rates, converting a public mortuary, and acquiring a proper coroner's court. His campaigns had limited success because the social scene in which he worked was complicated by the dominance of health and welfare agencies that resented his role as an expanding arm of the Victorian information state.

[County physician Christian Lintrup's work in the Norwegian county Hedemark 1800-1831]. / Amtsfysikus Christian Lintrups virke i Hedemarkens amt i årene 1800-31.

BACKGROUND: The first decades after 1800 were dominated by war, bad crops and epidemics and the few existing public physicians worked under difficult conditions. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A review of medical reports from the period 1804-31 and county physician Christian Lintrup's (1768-1844) correspondence with other public physicians in the county of Hedmark (Hedemarken at the time) and the county official (their administrative leader). RESULTS: Lintrup was born in Denmark, took his medical university degree in 1798 in Copenhagen and was appointed county physician in Hedemarken in 1799. The doctors had a basic salary and their possibility for an income from private practice was uncertain, especially in the rural districts. Many sick calls required long and time-consuming journeys. Use of quacks was common, not only among the poor. Lintrup's work was affected by the Age of Reason's rationalism and belief in knowledge, which was apparent in his handling of psychotic patients. He took the initiative to employ public midwives and spent much time travelling in the county to inform people about health-related issues in general and vaccination against copper especially. INTERPRETATION: Despite of few resources, Christian Lintrup and his colleagues succeeded in developing and consolidating a local health service. They formed the basis for later county physicians work and for development of a modern public health service in Norway.

Sweat or no sweat: foreign workers in the garment industry in Malaysia.

In the last decade factory owners, in response to brand-name Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) parameters, have joined associations that verify (through a monitoring and audit system) that management does not exploit labour. There have been no reports of violations of codes of conduct concerning Malaysian workers but for foreign workers on contract there are certain areas that have been reported. These areas, including trade union membership, the withholding of workers' passports and unsuitable accommodation, generally escape notice because auditors who monitor factory compliance do not question the terms of contracts as long as they comply with national labour standards. This paper is based on research with foreign workers in Malaysia and argues that despite the success of the anti-sweatshop movement in a global context, the neo-liberal state in Malaysia continues to place certain restrictions on transnational labour migrants which breach garment industry codes of conduct. Available evidence does not support the assumption that CSR practices provide sufficient protection for both citizen and foreign workers on contract in the garment industry.

[In search of the origin of municipal pharmacists]. / En busca del origen de los farmacéuticos titulares.

The evolution of public health in Spain during the 19th century can be divided into three stages. In the first stage (1812-1833), the reign of Fernando VII prevented the development of the liberal postulates: <>. The second stage (1833-1873), was characterized by the legislative development of sanitary organization in Spain. As a result of this new legislative framework, and in the context of social hygiene (<>), the figures of municipal health professionals appeared, engaged by the city councils to be in charge of the medical assistance of the poor (municipal physician), of the pharmaceutical assistance of the poor (municipal pharmacist), and of the health inspection of meat from the slaughterhouses (municipal veterinarian). The third stage (1873-1904), marked the beginning of a new age (microbiology) and the beginning of the scientific method. Microbiology prompted the creation of municipal laboratories throughout the state and laid the foundations for the creation of the Healthcare Services of Medicine, Pharmacy and Veterinary Science at the beginning of the xx century. These organizations would have a well-defined organizational structure with wider functions.

Colin Fraser Brockington (1903-2004) and the revolution in nurse-education.

Colin Fraser Brockington was Professor of Social and Preventive Medicine at the University of Manchester from 1952 to 1965. During that time he developed the Diploma in Community Nursing, the first pre-registration training course for nurses at a British University. This paper traces Brockington's education and career and explores his commitment to university-based nursing education which appears to have stemmed from his desire to enhance and broaden the role of the health visitor. It also considers the implications of the innovative course at Manchester and evaluates the way in which it influenced the gradual movement of nursing education into the university sector throughout the UK.

Public health experiences from interwar Croatia (Yugoslavia) and making western medicine in the 1930s China

To gain control and domination over a particular territory, medicine was often used as a tool for promoting different interests. Using the activities of the League of Nations Health Organization and the Rockefeller Foundation on the territory of China in 1930s, this paper analyses the interconnection of the international and local factors in the transformation of the traditional Chinese milieu to suit the new and trendy public health projects. These activities were conducted not only to improve the public health conditions in the country, but also to introduce the Chinese public health to the processes of internationalization and standardization to the west oriented type of medicine and medical education. Initiated processes necessarily interfered with the political influences, economical interests and cultural environment as well as with military actions in this very turbulent time of Chinese history. Public health activities were carried out by the group of international experts. Among them the main position took two Croatian physicians: Andrija Stampar (one of the founders of the World Health Organisation later) and Berislav Borcic (a director of the School of Public Health in Zagreb). On the basis of correspondence between these two physicians, as well as the travel diary of Andrija Stampar, this essay presents some less known details about the situation in China and the interlacing between politics and medicine.