Trastornos de la salud mental en personas sometidas a cuarentena, estudio transversal durante pandemia por COVID-19 en población chilena / The effects of quarantine on anxiety and emotional symptoms. Results of an online survey

BACKGROUND: Quarantines may exacerbate the presence of emotional symptoms or anxiety. AIM: To explore the relation between time spent in lockdown and development of depressive and anxiety symptoms. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A survey including the GAD anxiety and PHQ-9 depression scores was answered online by 1,488 subjects aged 36 ± 14 years (74% women), invited to participate through social networks. Both scores are validated for the Chilean population. RESULTS: Most responders had a private health insurance system. Sixty seven percent had clinically significant depressive symptoms and 39% had anxiety symptoms. Spending four or more weeks of lockdown (quarantine) was associated with 1.6 times higher risk of developing depressive symptoms and 2.9 times higher risk of developing anxiety symptoms. Difficulties in access to health care increased 3.3 times the risk of developing depression. Suffering a respiratory disease increased 2.39 times the risk of developing anxiety. CONCLUSIONS: There was a direct association between depressive and anxious symptoms, and the time spent of quarantine.

Factores de riesgo socio-demográficos del síndrome cardiopulmonar por hantavirus / Sociodemographic risk factors of hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome

Resumen Introducción: El síndrome cardiopulmonar por hantavirus (SCPH) es causado en Chile y en el sur de Argentina por el Andes hantavirus (ANDV), el que es endémico en esta zona. La enfermedad causada por ANDV produce un aumento de permeabilidad vascular y filtración de plasma con una alta tasa de letalidad (35%), debido principalmente a insuficiencia respiratoria por edema pulmonar y al desarrollo en los casos graves de compromiso miocárdico, hipoperfusión y shock. Aunque se sabe que los factores socio-demográficos del hospedero pueden influir en el curso y el resultado de la enfermedad, estos no se han caracterizado previamente en la población chilena. Objetivo: Evaluar la relación entre los factores socio-demográficos y la gravedad del SCPH. Pacientes y Métodos: Período de análisis 2004-20013, pacientes atendidos en ocho centros colaboradores, diagnóstico etiológico serológico o por biología molecular, se comparan SCPH leve y grave. Se analizaron 139 pacientes chilenos, 64 (46%) con enfermedad grave, entre los cuales 12 murieron (19%). Resultados: La etnia europea tuvo un riesgo 5,1 veces mayor de desarrollar un SCPH grave que la etnia amerindia, gravedad mayor que también se asoció a una residencia urbana. Conclusiones: Se observó una asociación estadísticamente significativa entre etnia, lugar de residencia y evolución de SCPH. Se discuten hipótesis que expliquen estos hallazgos.

Background: Hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS) is caused by new world hantaviruses, among which Andes hantavirus (ANDV) is endemic to Chile and Southern Argentina. The disease caused by ANDV produces plasma leakage leading to enhanced vascular permeability and has a high case fatality rate (35%), mainly due to respiratory failure, pulmonary edema and myocardial dysfunction, hypoperfusion and shock. Host sociodemographic and genetic factors might influence the course and outcome of the disease. Yet, they have not been thoroughly characterized. Aim: To evaluate sociodemographic factors as risk factors in severity of HCPS. Patients and Methods: Study period: 2004-20013, attending in eight collaborative centers, etiological diagnosis was performed by serology or molecular biology, mild and severe HCPS were compared.139 Chilean patients were analyzed, 64 (46%) with severe disease among which 12 (19 %) died. Results: European ethnicity had 5,1 times higher risk than Amerindian ethnic group to develop a severe HCPS, greater seriousness that was also associated with an urban residence. Conclusion: It was observed that ethnicity and type of residence were significant risk factors for HCPS severity. Hypotheses explaining these findings are discussed.

Metabolismo mineral en niños en diálisis peritoneal crónica / Mineral metabolism in patients on chronic peritoneal dialysis

Introduction: Children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and receiving peritoneal dialysis (PD) have disorders of mineral metabolism that impact their growth, survival and cardiovascular functions. New molecular markers offer a better understanding of the pathophysiology of this disease. Objective: To characterize some components of mineral metabolism, with emphasis on FGF23/Klotho and cardiovascular functions (CV) of these patients. Patients and Method: Prospective observational cohort study. Exclusion criteria: serum 25 (OH) vitamin D < 20 ng/ml, peritonitis within the last two months and active nephrotic syndrome. Calcemia, phosphemia, parathyroid hormone (PTH), 25 (OH) vitD3, 1.25 (OH) vitD3, FGF23 and Klotho in plasma were measured. FGF23 and Klotho were quantified in healthy children as a control group. Echocardiography was performed calculating the left ventricular mass index (LVMI). Descriptive statistics analysis, Pearson correlation coefficient for association among variables and multivariate analysis were conducted. Results: 33 patients, 16 males, aged between 1.2 and 13.4 years were included. Age of onset for PD: 7.3 +/- 5.0 years, time receiving PD: 13.5 +/- 14.5 months. The plasma concentration of 25 (OH) vitD3 was 34.2 +/- 6.3 pg/ml. Calcemia and phosphemia values were 9.8 ± 0.71 and 5.4 +/- 1.0 mg/dl respectively. PTH was 333 +/- 287 pg/ml. FGF23 in plasma was 225.7 +/- 354.3 pg/ml and Klotho 131.6 +/- 72 pg/ml, and in the controls ( n = 16 ), it was 11.9 +/- 7.2 pg/ml and 320 +/- 119 pg/ml, respectively. The residual and total dose of dialysis (KtV) was 1.6 +/- 1.3 and 2.9 +/- 1.6, respectively. FGF23 levels significantly correlated with calcium (p < 0.001, r = 0.85), and inversely with residual KtV, showing no relationship with phosphemia. Klotho level correlated negatively with residual KtV and also, it showed a negative association with chronological age and age at onset of PD. LVMI > 38 g/m² was confirmed in 20/28 patients...

Introducción: Los niños portadores de Enfermedad renal crónica (ERC) en diálisis peritoneal (DP) presentan alteraciones del metabolismo mineral que afectan su crecimiento, estado cardiovascular y sobrevida. Nuevos marcadores moleculares representan una mejor comprensión de la fisiopatología de esta enfermedad. Objetivo: Caracterizar componentes del metabolismo mineral, con énfasis en FGF23/Klotho, y estado cardiovascular (CV) en este grupo de pacientes. Pacientes y Método: Estudio prospectivo observacional. Criterios de exclusión: niveles de 25 (OH) vitamina D < 20 ng/ml, peritonitis hasta 2 meses previos y síndrome nefrótico activo. Se midió calcemia, fosfemia, paratohormona (PTH), 25 (OH) vitD3, 1,25 (OH) vitD3, FGF23 y Klotho en plasma. Se cuantificó FGF23 y Klotho en niños sanos como grupo control. Se efectuó ecocardiografía, calculándose el índice de masa ventricular izquierda (IMVI). Se realizó análisis estadístico descriptivo, coeficiente de correlación de Pearson para asociación entre variables y análisis multivariado. Resultados: Se incluyeron 33 pacientes, 16 varones, edad 1,2 a 13,4 años. Edad de inicio de DP: 7,3 +/- 5,0 años, tiempo en DP: 13,5 +/- 14,5 meses. El nivel plasmático de 25 (OH) vitD3 fue 34,2 +/- 6,3 pg/ml. Los valores de calcemia y fosfemia fueron 9,8 +/- 0,71 y 5,4 +/- 1,0 mg/dl respectivamente. La PTH fue de 333 +/- 287 pg/ml. El FGF23 en plasma fue de 225,7 +/- 354,3 pg/ml y Klotho 131,6 +/- 72 pg/ml, y en los controles (n = 16) fue de 11,9 +/- 7,2 pg/ ml y 320 +/- 119 pg/ml, respectivamente. La dosis de diálisis (KtV) residual y total fue de 1,6 +/- 1,3 y 2,9 +/- 1.6, respectivamente. El nivel de FGF23 se correlacionó significativamente con la calcemia (p < 0,001, r = 0,85), e inversamente con el KtV residual, sin mostrar relación con la fosfemia. El nivel de Klotho...

Prematuros moderados y tardíos, un grupo de riesgo de menor desarrollo cognitivo en los primeros años de vida / Moderately and late preterm newborns, a risk group for low cognitive development in the first years of life

Introduction: Recent studies show that moderately and late preterm infants (MLI) (Gestational age (GA) 32 to 36(6)), are in high risk for delayed psychomotor development (PMD) and learning disabilities. Objective: To compare PMD between MLI and full term infants (FTI) and to analyze associated perinatal risk factors. Methodology: 131 MLI and 119 FTI were recruited between May 2008 and April 2011 in a private health center in Santiago, Chile. Both groups were compared according to age, gender and socio-economic level. At the ages of 8, 18 and 30 months the children were evaluated by means of the Bayley III Scale for Infantile Development 3rd edition (BAYLEY-III). PMD was compared in both groups and multiple lineal regression analysis was performed. Results: MLI showed a significantly lower development coefficient, but it matched the FTI when corrected by GA, (99 +/- 10.4 versus 100.8 +/- 9.9). Even with corrected GA, the cognitive performance was lower (98 +/- 10.4 vs 103.1 +/- 11.4 p < 0.05). Multiple lineal regressions showed that GA and gender were associated with lower cognitive development. Conclusion: Cognitive performance of MLI was below that of FTI. This increases the need to have especial standards of care and stimulation for these children.

Introducción: Estudios recientes refieren que los prematuros moderados y tardíos (PMT) (Edad Gestacional (EG) 32 a 36(6)), presentan un elevado riesgo de retraso del desarrollo psicomotor (DSM) y dificultades de aprendizaje. Objetivo: Comparar el DSM entre niños nacidos PMT y recién nacidos de término (RNT) y analizar los factores de riesgo perinatal asociados. Metodología: En un centro de salud de Santiago de Chile, entre mayo 2008 y abril 2011, se reclutaron 131 PMT y 119 RNT, pareados por edad, género y nivel socioeconómico. A los 8, 18 o 30 meses se les aplicó la Escala de Bayley III de Desarrollo Infantil-3ª edición. Se comparó el DSM entre los dos grupos y se implementó una regresión lineal múltiple. Resultados: Los PMT presentaron un coeficiente de desarrollo significativamente inferior al no corregir EG, equiparándose con los RNT al corregirla (99 +/- 10,4 vs 100,8 +/- 9,9). Aún con EG corregida, el desempeño cognitivo fue inferior (98 +/- 10,4 vs 103,1 +/- 11,4 p < 0,05). En la regresión lineal múltiple el género y la EG se asociaron con menor desarrollo cognitivo. Conclusión: El desempeño cognitivo de los PMT fue inferior a los RNT. Se plantea la importancia de implementar un estándar de cuidado y estimulación para este grupo de niños.

Evolución de las licencias por enfermedad grave del niño(a) menor de un año 2004-2008: certezas e interrogantes / Sick leaves motivated by severe diseases of children of less than one year of age

Background: The increase in expenses of the health care system caused by sick leaves, especially those granted to mothers with children of less than one year of age with severe diseases, is a topic of concern. Aim: To describe the rates of sick leaves granted to mothers with children of less than one year of age with severe diseases from 2004 to 2008. Material and Methods: Analysis of databases containing information about sick leaves coming from Chilean public and private health care subsystems. Leaves granted to mothers with sick children of less than one year were specifically analyzed in terms of days off work and the amount of monetary benefits. Results: A sustained increase, ranging from 20 to 120% in the number of sick leaves motivated by diseases of children of less than one year, was observed. Thirty four percent of maternity leaves concentrate immediately after finishing the legal period (24 weeks after birth) and almost 60% of them occured within the first 6 months after birth. The most frequent diagnoses that motivated the higher number of leaves were gas-troesophageal reflux and bronchitis. Conclusions: There is probably a bad use of the benefit in a percentage of leaves. The benefit is also regressive since it favors mostly mothers of a better socioeconomic condition. The law that will extend the postnatal maternity leave will solve in part these problems.

Experiencia de trombolisis sistematizada en infarto cerebral agudo en un hospital público de Chile / Thrombolysis for acute ischemic stroke with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator in a Chilean public hospital

Background: The only accepted treatment for acute ischemic stroke is thrombolysis with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA). It was implemented in Chile in 1996, although its use was mainly restricted in Chile to private clinics. Recently, at year 2009, we have implemented this treatment in a public hospital. Aim: To describe the results of treatment of acute ischemic stroke with t-PA in a public hospital in Chile. Material and Methods: Prospective analysis of all eligible patients with acute ischemic stroke that were admitted within 4 hours of its onset and had no contraindications for thrombolysis. Results: In an eight months period, a total of 19 intravenous thrombolyses were performed in 12 males and seven females aged 28 to 79 years old. The mean lapse between onset of symptoms and onset of thrombolysis was 190 ± 57 min. Results were favorable, according to Rankin and National Institute of Health Stroke scales. Ninety days after treatment, 63 percent of patients had minimal or absent disability, 26 percent had moderate disability and only one (5 percent) had severe disability. One patient had a clinically not significant intracranial hemorrhage and one patient died six days after thrombolysis. Conclusions: These results indicate that thrombolysis can be successfully implemented in Chilean public hospitals. The limitations for its use in this setting are mostly administrative.

Análisis de una experiencia de consultoría ético clínica en cuidado intensivo / Analysis of a clinical ethics consultation experience in intensive care

Background: Very few patients are presented to ethics committees, and individual ethics consultations are a response to this situation. At the intensive care unit (ICU) in Clínica Alemana, Santiago Chile, an ethics consultation system was organized coordinated with the ethics committee. Aim: To report an evaluation of this ethics consultation system. Material and Methods: Analysis of the frst 50 cases analyzed in the consultation system. Analysis of the responses of intensive care physicians to a questionnaire about the main ethical problems that they face in their work. Results: The consultation system is mainly required by the ICU staff, and reports to the ethics committee. Fifty four percent of patients subjected to consultation were aged over 80 years. The main diagnoses were neurological, oncological or cardiopulmonary problems. The ethical problems identifed were treatment limitation (62 percent), proportionality or futility (42 percent), need of a peaceful death (36 percent), lack of anticipated decisions (28 percent), disagreement between physicians and patient’s family (24 percent), undefined subrogation (14 percent), and abuse of public resources (14 percent). Twenty six of 31 ICU physicians answered the questionnaire, using a 1 (min) to 7 (max.) scale. They found that consultation is helpful for decision making (6.3), useful for improving ethical perception (6.0), supportive for staff (6.5), good for patients (6.3), supportive for families (6.7), and timely performed (5.2). Conclusions: As a complement for the ethics committee’s work, consultation is a valid alternative for ethics counselling and a support for physicians and patient’s families. Its implementation depends on the particularities of each health institution.

Hantavirosis: Caracterización clínica-epidemiológica de pacientes pediátricos en Chile / Hantavirosis: Clinical and epidemiological characteristics of pediatric patients in Chile

Background: The first cases of Hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome in children were described in the United States and represented 8 percent of the total reported cases; in Chile, the proportion of pediatric cases represents 15 percent of all national cases. Aim: To describe the epidemiology and clinical course of 82 children reported to the Chilean Ministry of Health up to 2007 and to characterize more extensively a subgroup of 24 children whose detailed clinical data were available. Results: Forty patients were under 10 years old. Seventeen (17/82) of 82 cases (20.7 percent) presented in the context of a family cluster. Ninety eight percent of cases (80/82) occurred among individuals living in rural areas and 66 percent during summer months). The overall fatality rate was 36.6 percent. Fever (93 percent), respiratory distress (75 percent) and gastrointestinal symptoms (75 percent) were the most frequent symptoms encountered in the 28 children studied more extensively. Abnormal blood coagulation test were significantly associated with death while an increased hematocrit was associated with severe cases (hemodynamic unstability). Conclusion: An early diagnosis should favor early onset of aggressive treatment that could potentially save lives. Increasing knowledge on the clinical presentation of the disease in children should improve early clinical diagnosis among health care professionals.

Introducción: Los primeros casos del síndrome cardiopulmonar por hantavirus en población pediátrica fueron descritos en Estados Unidos de América y representaron 8 por cientoo de los casos comunicados; en Chile la frecuencia relativa en niños ha sido de 15 por ciento del total nacional. Objetivo: Describir la epidemiología y evolución clínica de 82 niños notificados al MTNSAL hasta el 2007 y caracterizar el comportamiento clínico en 24 de ellos de quienes se disponía de registro clínico detallado. Resultados: Cuarenta pacientes tenían bajo 10 años de edad, predominando envarones. Un quinto (17/82) estuvo asociado a conglomerados familiares. Noventay ocho por ciento (80/82) se presentaron en áreas rurales y 54 (66 por ciento) ocurrieron en el verano. La letalidad fue de 36,6 por ciento. Los síntomas más frecuentes fueron: fiebre (93 por ciento), dificultad respiratoria (75 por ciento) y síntomas gastrointestinales (75 por ciento). De los exámenes de laboratorio con significancia estadística, las pruebas de coagulación alteradas predicen fallecimiento y el hematocrito elevado está siempre presente en pacientes graves. Conclusión: El diagnóstico oportuno facilita el tratamiento intensivo precoz. La difusión de la presentación clínica infantil mejorará la sospecha diagnóstica en el personal de salud.

Programa de salud oral integral para niños (as) de 6 años como problema de salud con garantía explícita en Chile: la participación de los pediatras / A study of the promotion of a dental health program for children under 6 years of age in Chile's national health program: the participation of pediatricians

In the context of Explicit Health Guarantees Plan (EHGP), in 2005 the Ministry of Health introduced the "Comprehensive Oral Health care for 6 year old children". By MTNSAL's initiative, a study was developed to assess the distribution, use and implementation of this guarantee for every child in the country. Some results of this study are presented. Method: Parents and guardians of 6-year-old children who receive this benefit were surveyed in a random representative sample of urban and rural schools in the country throughout 2007-2008. Results: A large majority (73.9 percent) of parents are familiar with the National Health Guaranties, among these, 70.3 percent are familiar with the dental benefit. A small proportion (23.3 percent in public insurance, 13.2 percent in private insurance system), found out about this program through the Primary health care services. Discussion: The Dental Guarantee is well known, but underutilized. It is important that physicians, especially pediatricians, collaborate in the promotion of dental health and the utilization of this benefit, which is the right of every Chilean child.

Antecedentes: El Ministerio de Salud incorporó el programa "Salud Oral Integral para niños (as) de 6 años" dentro del régimen de Garantías Explícitas en Salud (GES) en 2005. Por iniciativa de MINSAL, se realizó un estudio para evaluar la difusión, uso e implementación de esta garantía. Objetivo: Presentar algunos resultados de dicho estudio. Metodología: Se encuestaron apoderados de niños (as) de 6 años beneficiarios de la garantía en el 2006 mediante un cuestionario autoaplicado en una muestra representativa de escuelas urbanas y rurales a lo largo del país durante el período 2007-2008. Resultados: El 73,9 por ciento de los apoderados conoce el GES en general; y de éstos, 70,3 por ciento está informado sobre la garantía de atención dental para niños de 6 años. Pocos padres (23,3 por ciento en FONASA y 13,2 por ciento en ISAPRES) se informaron del GES dental por medio del Control de Niño Sano. Del total de niños que solicitaron atención (36,5 por ciento), 98,5 por ciento fue acogida satisfactoriamente. Conclusión: La garantía GES dental para niños de 6 años se está cumpliendo satisfactoriamente, sin embargo, pocos niños la solicitan. Por esto, es necesario que el médico y, especialmente el pediatra, colabore y se haga cargo de la promoción de salud bucal y la difusión de esta garantía, derecho de todo niño chileno.

Aumento del riesgo de consultas cardiovasculares por contaminación atmosférica por partículas: estudio en la ciudad de Santiago / Increased risk of consultation for cardiovascular problems related to particle atmospheric pollution: a study in Santiago, Chile

Introducción: En la literatura se reconoce que la contaminación del aire por partículas en diversas ciudades determina un exceso del riesgo de enfermedades cardiovasculares. Santiago es una de las urbes con mayor polución de partículas MP 10 y MP 2,5 en el mundo. Objetivo: Estudiar la asociación entre la concentración diaria de partículas y la morbilidad cardiovascular en los 6 Servicios de Urgencia de la ciudad. Métodos: Se consideraron el número total de consultas cardiovasculares en el año 2007, el Infarto miocárdico, accidente cerebro-vascular y crisis hipertensiva. La concentración de partículas se obtuvo de los registros de 7 centros de la red de Monitoreo de la Calidad del Aire de la Región Metropolitana (MACAM) y lasvariables temperatura y humedad, del Instituto de Meteorología de Chile. Estadísticamente se implementó un modelo de regresión múltiple GAM. Resultados: Se observó que para todo el año 2007 las concentraciones de partículas ambientales MP 10 estuvieron altas, sobre la norma recomendada por la OMS. Ello se asoció a un incrementó del 10% del riesgo de consultas cardiovasculares durante todo el año 2007. Para las partículas MP 2,5 el riesgo aumentó en un 17 por ciento. En los meses invernales Junio y Julio, el riesgo aumentó en 15 por ciento y 28 por ciento respectivamente. Todas las cifras resultaron altamente significativas (p< 0.001). Para la crisis hipertensiva, los aumentos del riesgo fueron 4 y 13 por ciento, también significativos. Conclusión: Se concluye que la contaminación por partículas se asocia significativamente a un mayor riesgo de consultas por enfermedades cardiovasculares en la ciudad de Santiago y que el riesgo es mayor en presencia de partículas MP 2,5.

Background: Atmospheric contamination due to particles is recognized as a factor related to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Santiago has one of the greatest concentrations of MP 10 and MP 2.5 particles in the world.Aim: to determine the association of daily changes in particle concentration and cardiovascular morbidity in 6 emergency consultation centers in Santiago. Methods: Total number of consults, myocardial infarction, stroke and hypertensive crisis were included as endpoints. Concentration of particles was obtained from registries routinely made in 7 centers of a city based environmental agency (“Monitoring quality of air in the Metropolitan Region”, MACAM). Air temperature and humidity were obtained from the Chilean Meteorology Institute. Data were analyzed using a multiple regression model (GAM). Results: Throughout 2007, concentration of MP 10 was above the norm recommended by WHO. This was associated to a 10 percent increase in CV related consultations. In relation to MP 2.5 the risk was increased 17 percent. The CV risk peaked at 15 percent and 28 percent in June and July, respectively. All relations were highly significant (p<0.001) including the 4 and 13 percent increase in hypertension emergencies. Conclusion: Increased particle concentration in the air is significantly associated to a higher risk of cardiovascular consultation in Santiago. The risk is higher in relation to increased MP 2.5 particle concentration.

¿Puede estimarse el diámetro del injerto cuádruple semitendinoso-gracilis en el preoperatorio, en relación al género y edad del paciente? / Can we predict the diameter of the hamstring autograft before ACL surgery based on the patient´s sex and age?

We studied the relation between quadruple hamstring autograft diameter with sex and age of the patients that underwent Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) reconstructive surgery. Our purpose was to predict the diameter of the autograft before surgery and to describe the diameter distribution in our population. Methods: Between April 1998 and July 2005, 220 patients were operated for ACL tears using autologous quadruple STG grafts. We reviewed surgical protocols. Results: 70 percent of patients were males (average age: 25.2 years) and 30 percent females (average age: 27.5 years). The average autograft diameter was 8.4 mm: 8.6 mm for males and 8.05 mm for females exhibiting a significant difference (p < 0.0001). We did not find a significant correlation between graft diameter and patient´s age. Conclusion: The quadruple STG autograft diameter describes a Gaussian curve and is significantly greater in men than in women. Although we didn´t find correlation between age and diameter, a trend was present in the male´s group.

Determinar si en pacientes con indicación de reconstrucción de Ligamento Cruzado Anterior con autoinjerto cuádruple de Semitendinoso-Gracilis, se puede predecir el diámetro del injerto en base al sexo y la edad. Métodos: Entre Abril de 1998 y Julio de 2005 se operaron 220 pacientes de LCA con autoinjerto cuádruple de STG. Se analizaron protocolos operatorios. Resultados: 70 por ciento de los pacientes eran hombres edad promedio de 25,2 años y el 30 por ciento mujeres con edad promedio de 27,5 años. El promedio de los diámetros fue 8,4 mm, siendo 8,6 mm para hombres y 8,05 mm para mujeres, existiendo diferencia significativa (p < 0,0001). No hubo correlación entre diámetro del injerto y edad. Conclusión: El diámetro del injerto cuádruple STG describe una curva gaussiana, siendo mayor en hombres que en mujeres, sin correlación entre edad y diámetro, pero existiendo sí tendencia a mayor diámetro con mayor edad en el grupo de hombres.

Análisis del nuevo Módulo de Salud de la Encuesta CASEN 2000 / Analysis of the new health module of the National Socioeconomic Characterization Survey 2000

Background: The National Socioeconomic Characterization Survey (CASEN) was modified in the year 2000, to include an assessment of the inequalities in the access to health services. Aim: To analyze the health issues of year 2000 survey database. Material and methods: During 2000, 38338 urban and 26698 rural dwellings were surveyed, totaling 240000 people analyzing ascription to public or private health services and the need demand and use of these services. Results: A higher risk population (lower income, higher age and women) is ascribed to public health services. Sixty five percent of the population self perceives their health as good, this figure decreases along with age and women have a worse self perception than men. In the 30 days prior to the survey, 13 percent of the population had a health related event; this figure was higher among women and the lower income quintiles. Expressed health demand was higher among women and lower income quintiles. A multivariate analysis identified an age below 14 years, pertaining to a minority ethnic group, ascription to private health services, residing in rural areas, pertaining to the lower income quintile and male sex, as factors associated to a lack access to health care. In the adjusted model, pertaining to the National Health Fund (a public system) is a protective factor to receive health services. Conclusions: The significant inequalities in the access to health care should be corrected with the new Health Reform. The new module incorporated to the National Socioeconomic Characterization Survey, is usefel to assess the access to health care in Chile (Rev Méd Chile 2004; 132: 750-60).

Inequidad de ingreso y autopercepción de salud: un análisis desde la perspectiva contextual en las comunas chilenas / Income inequality and self rated health in Chile

Background: The correlation between income inequality and life expectancy was demonstrated 10 years ago, but later, several studies suggested that the negative impact of a low economic income on the health status was disappearing. Aim: To assess the independent effects of community income inequality on self rated health in Chile. Material and methods : Multilevel analysis of the 2000 National Socio Economic Characterization Survey (CASEN) data from Chile. Individual level information included self rated health, age, sex, ethnicity, marital status, education, income, type of health insurance and residential setting (urban/rural). Community level variables included the Gini coefficient and median income. The main outcome measure was dichotomized self rated health (0 if excellent, very good or good; 1 if fair or poor). Results: 101,374 individuals (at level 1) aged 18 and above, nested within 285 communities (at level 2) and 13 regions (at level 3) were studied. Controlling for a range of individual level predictors, a significant gradient was observed between income and poor self rated health, with very poor most likely to report poor health (10.5 percent) followed by poor (9.5 percent) low (9 percent) middle (7 percent), high (6 percent) and very high (4.5 percent) income earners. Controlling for individual and community effects of income, a significant non linear effect of community income inequality was observed, with the most unequal communities being associated with approximately 5 percent higher likelihood of reporting poor health compared to the most equal communities. Conclusions : Individual income does not explain any of the between community differences and neither does it wash the significant effects of income inequality on poor self rated health. The contextual effect of inequality is almost as large as the differential observed in poor health comparing the very poor to the very rich individual income categories

Hábitos alimentarios de la población de Valparaíso: encuesta de base CARMEN conjunto de acciones para la reducción multifactorial de las enfermedades no transmisibles / Eating habits of the population from Valparaíso: CARMEN base survey actions for the multifactorial reduction of noncommunicable chronic diseases

Las enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles (ECNT) han tenido un aumento progresivo durante en las últimas décadas en nuestro país, ocupando los primeros lugares como causas de morbilidad y mortalidad de los adultos. Estas causas se pueden modificar si intervenimos sobre los factores de riesgo que predicen o anticipan el daño. Dentro de los factores de riesgo de la población, la alimentación tiene una preponderancia como un vehículo de prevención. Sin embargo, no existen cifras claras del consumo de alimentos a escala nacional, contando sólo con algunos datos parciales derivados de trabajos de investigación. El proyecto CARMEN (conjunto de acciones para la reducción multifactorial de las enfermedades no transmisibles), tuvo por objeto medir los factores de riesgo y hábitos conductuales de una población representativa de la comuna de Valparaíso. El estudio se efectúo a una muestra de 3120 sujetos (1020 hombres y 2100 mujeres) entre 25 y 64 años. Más del 94 por ciento de la población consumía aceite como su principal fuente de grasa, un 71,7 por ciento de los hombres y un 63,7 por ciento de las mujeres indica no consumir leche y un 98 por ciento de los encuestados consume pan diariamente. Se discute la relación de los hábitos alimentarios con las ECNT

Exposición severa a plomo ambiental en una población infantil de Antofagasta, Chile / Childhood environmental lead exposure in Antofagasta, Chile

Background: In Antofagasta, Chile, lead is gathered in bulk in urban zones, contaminating surrounding schools and houses. Aim: To verify if the environmental lead exposure results in high blood lead levels in children living near lead storage sites. Material and methods: Four hundred eighty six children under 7 years old, living near lead storage sites and 75 children living far away form these sites, were studied. An inquiry was applied and venous blood was drawn. Air, soil and water lead concentrations were also measured. Results: Lead geometric mean concentrations in exposed children were 8.7 µg/dL and 4.22 µg/dL in unexposed children. Forty seven percent of exposed children and no unexposed children had lead levels over 10 µg/dL. The distance of dwellings from lead storage sites, their geographic location and their antiquity were significantly associated with high blood lead levels. Multivariate models disclosed that people living in contaminated sites have an odds ratio of 24.9 for high blood lead levels. Conclusions: Environmental lead contamination is significantly associated with high blood lead levels

Factores de riesgo para las enfermedades no transmisibles: metodología y resultados globales de la encuesta de base del programa CARMEN: conjunto de acciones para la reducción multifactorial de las enfermedades no transmisibles / Risk factors for chronic non communicable diseases: methods and results of CARMEN program basal survey

Background: In the last decades, chronic non communicable diseases are becoming the main cause of disability and mortality among adults. The risk factor surveillance and management is the most efficient mean of reducing the impact of these diseases. Aim: To report the results of a non communicable disease risk factor surveillance program in Valparaiso, Chile. Material and methods: a random samples of people aged 25 to 64 years old living in Valparaiso, Chile was studied. Subjects were questioned about smoking and physical activity habits. Blood pressure, height and weight were measured using standardized techniques at their homes and blood samples were obtained to measure serum lipid levels and oral glucose tolerance test at the nearest outpatient clinic. Results: Of the initial 3852 homes selected, 752 individuals did no agree to answer the inquiry, therefore 3120 subjects were finally interviewed. Of these, 40.6 percent were smokers, 15 percent drank alcohol in two or more occasions per month, 84.6 percent were physically inactive, 19.7 percent had a body mass index over 30 kg/m2, 11.1 percent had high blood pressure, 3.9 percent were diabetic and 46.9 percent had high serum cholesterol levels. Conclusions: The basal survey for the CARMEN program shows a high prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors among chileans

Prevalencia de hipertensión arterial en Valparaíso: resultados de la encuesta de base el programa CARMEN: conjunto de acciones para la reducción multifactorial de las enfermedades no transmisibles / Prevalence of hypertension in Valparaíso: results of the base survey of CARMEN program

Background: There is little information about the real prevalence of hypertension in Chile. Aim: To assess the adjusted prevalence of hypertension and its main therapeutic measures among adults living in Valparaiso, Chile. Material and methods: A random sample of dwellings in Valparaiso was chosen. Among these, an individual of 25 to 64 years old was randomly surveyed for risk factors for chronic diseases and sociodemographic parameters. Blood pressure, weight, height, oral glucose tolerance test, fasting cholesterol and triglycerides were also measured. Prevalence was pondered according to age, sex, and probability of selection in the dwelling interior. Results: Three thousand one hundred twelve individuals were studied. The adjusted prevalence of hypertension was 11.4 percent (11.6 percent among females and 10.6 percent among men). The prevalence increased along with age from 3 and 1.9 percent in men and women of 25 to 34 years old respectively, to 18.2 and 27.4 percent among men and women of 55 to 64 years old (p< 0.01). People of low socioeconomic level had a higher prevalence of hypertension than those of high socioeconomic level (14.2 and 9.3 percent respectively, p < 0.05). Diabetes, obesity and hypercholesterolemia were significantly more frequent in subjects with hypertension than in the general population. Forty four percent of diagnosed hypertensives were receiving medications (angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors 40 percent, calcium antagonists 34 percent, beta blockers 22 percent). Twenty five percent of patients were treated with a combination of medications. Of those treated, only 22 percent had normal blood pressure levels at the moment of examination. Conclusions: High blood pressure is an important public health problem that requires more efficient detection and treatment programs

Exposición crónica a plomo ambiental en lactantes chilenos II: efectos en el desarrollo psicomotor / Effects of chronic lead exposure on neurobehavioral development of Chilean lactating children

Background: Lactating children are specially susceptible to lead toxicity due to their underdeveloped nervous system, lower body mass, higher intestinal absorption and lower elimination rates. Aim: To determine the effects of lead exposure, comparing Chilean lactating children residing in rural areas with low lead exposure, and in urban areas with high lead exposure. Material and methods: Newborns from public maternity hospitals of the rural locality of San Felipe and from Metropolitan Santiago, were recruited for the study. On admission to the study, umbilical cord and maternal blood samples were obtained and an inquiry about perinatal, sociohereditary and lead exposure history was done. Children were followed every 6 months until 24 months of age, measuring blood parameters and neurobehavioral development using Bayley scales. Results: Three hundred twelve children from Santiago and 113 from San Felipe were studied. Maternal and children blood lead levels were higher in Santiago, but lower than those reported in other international studies. At 24 months of age, 4.5 percent of children from Santiago and 0.7 percent of children from San Felipe had levels over 10 µg/dl. No differences in neurobehavioral development were observed between children of both cities. At 24 months, scores of MDI scales were 91 in Santiago and 97 in San Felipe. The figures for PDI scale were 93 in Santiago and 93 in San Felipe. Main risk factors for a retarded neurobehavioral development were socioeconomic level with a mean Odds ratio of 3.5 (0.99-12.4), male sex with an Odds ratio of 2.3 (1.09-5.07) and stimulation at home with an Odds ratio of 0.7 (0.53-0.82. Conclusions: In this cohort of children, no effect of lead levels on neurobehavioral development was found

Exposición crónica a plomo ambiental en lactantes chilenos / Chronic exposure to environmental lead in Chilean nursing infants

Background: in Chile, there are several sources of environmental lead exposure. However, the few studies about lead levels in Chilean infants, do not allow to establish the prevalence of high lead in this population. Aim: to measure blood lead levels in nursing infants, living in rural and urban areas, from birth until two years of age. Subjects and methods: newborns from public maternity hospitals in Santiago and a rural area were selected for the study. An umbilical cord blood sample was obtained at bird and venous blood samples thereafter, every 6 months until the age of 24 months. Lead levels were measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometry atmospheric lead was measured simultaneously every week in Santiago and the rural area. Results: three hundred twelve children from Santiago and 113 from the rural area completed the 24 months follow-up. The mean lead exposure for infants living in Santiago and in the rural area was 1.23 ñ 0.66 and 0.19 ñ 0.15 µg/m3 respective (p < 0.001). Mean blood levels were always higher in infants from Santiago, compared to those from the rural area. At 24 months, 4,5 percent of children from Santiago and 0,7 percent of children from the rural area had blood lead levels over 10 µg/dl. Significant risk factors for high lead levels were recent paining of the house where the infant lives, eating soil bitting banisters and familiar labor exposure to lead. Conclusions: infants living in an urban area and exposed to increased atmospheric lead levels have higher blood lead levels than infants living in a rural area