الملخص
Los canales de cloruros, de sodio, de bicarbonato y los de agua (aquaporinas) se coordinan para mantener la cubierta líquido superficial de las vías respiratorias, que es necesaria para el aclaramiento mucociliar. El mecanismo general para el transporte de electrolitos y agua depende principalmente de la expresión diferencial y distribución de los transportadores y bombas de iones. Los iones y el agua se mueven a través de las vía paracelular o transcelular. La ruta transcelular del transporte de electrolitos requiere un transporte activo (dependiente de ATP) o pasivo (siguiendo gradientes electroquímicos) de iones. La ruta paracelular es un proceso pasivo que está controlado, en última instancia, por los gradientes electroquímicos transepiteliales predominantes. La fibrosis quística es una enfermedad hereditaria que se produce por mutaciones en el gen que codifica la proteína reguladora de la conductibilidad transmembrana de la fibrosis quística (CFTR) que actúa como un canal de cloro y cumple funciones de hidratación del líquido periciliar y mantenimiento del pH luminal. La disfunción del canal de cloro en el epitelio respiratorio determina una alteración en las secreciones bronquiales, con aumento de su viscosidad y alteración de la depuración mucociliar y que asociado a procesos infecciosos puede conducir a daño pulmonar irreversible. La disfunción del CFTR, también se ha visto implicado en la patogénesis de la pancreatitis aguda, en la enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica y la hiperreactividad en el asma. Existen fármacos que aprovechan los mecanismos fisiológicos en el transporte de iones, con un objetivo terapéutico.
The chloride channels, sodium and bicarbonate channels, and aquaporin water channels are coordinated to maintain the airway surface liquid that is necessary for mucociliary clearance. The general mechanism for the transport of electrolytes and fluids depends mainly on the differential expression and distribution of ion transporters and pumps. Ions and water move through the paracellular or transcellular pathways. The transcellular route of electrolyte transport requires an active transport (dependent on ATP) or passive (following electrochemical gradients) of ions. The paracellular pathway is a passive process that is ultimately controlled by the predominant transepithelial electrochemical gradients. Cystic fibrosis is a hereditary disease that is produced by mutations in the gene that encode cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulatory protein (CFTR) that acts as a chloride channel and performs functions of hydration of periciliary fluid and maintenance of luminal pH. The dysfunction of the chlorine channel in the respiratory epithelium determines an alteration in the bronchial secretions, with an increase in its viscosity and alteration of the mucociliary clearance and that associated with infectious processes can lead to irreversible lung damage. CFTR dysfunction has also been implicated in the pathogenesis of acute pancreatitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and bronchial hyperreactivity in asthma. There are drugs that exploit physiological mechanisms in the transport of ions with a therapeutic objective.
الموضوعات
Humans , Biological Transport, Active/physiology , Mucociliary Clearance/physiology , Ion Transport/physiology , Chloride Channels/metabolism , Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator/metabolism , Cystic Fibrosis/metabolism , Chloride Channels/physiology , Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator/physiology , Cystic Fibrosis/physiopathologyالملخص
La fibrosis quística se debe a la ausencia o defecto del canal transmembrana regulador de la fibrosis quística (CFTR), un canal de cloruro codificado en el gen cftr que juega un papel clave en la homeostasis del agua e iones. El CFTR es activado por el AMPc y se localiza en las membranas apicales y basolaterales de las vías aéreas, intestino y glándulas exocrinas. Una de sus funciones primarias en los pulmones es mantener la capa de líquido superficial a través de su función de canal y regular el canal epitelial de sodio sensible al amiloride (ENaC). Se han identificado más de 1900 mutaciones en el gen cftr. La enfermedad se caracteriza por secreciones viscosas en las glándulas exocrinas y por niveles elevados de cloruro de sodio en el sudor. En la fibrosis quística el CFTR no funciona y el ENaC está desregulado; el resultado es un aumento en la reabsorción de sodio y agua con la formación de un líquido viscoso. En las glándulas sudoríparas tanto el Na+ como el Cl- se retienen en el lumen causando una pérdida de electrolitos durante la sudoración y el NaCl se elimina al sudor. Así, los niveles elevados de NaCl son la base del test del sudor inducido por pilocarpina, un método de diagnóstico para la enfermedad. En esta revisión se discuten los movimientos de Cl- y Na+ en las glándulas sudoríparas y pulmón así como el papel del ENaC en la patogénesis de la enfermedad.
Cystic fibrosis is caused by dysfunction or lack of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), a chloride channel that has a key role in maintaining ion and water homoeostasis in different tissues. CFTR is a cyclic AMP-activated Cl- channel found in the apical and basal plasma membrane of airway, intestinal, and exocrine epithelial cells. One of CFTR’s primary roles in the lungs is to maintain homoeostasis of the airway surface liquid layer through its function as a chloride channel and its regulation of the epithelial sodium channel ENaC. More than 1900 CFTR mutations have been identified in the cftr gene. The disease is characterized by viscous secretions of the exocrine glands in multiple organs and elevated levels of sweat sodium chloride. In cystic fibrosis, salt and fluid absorption is prevented by the loss of CFTR and ENaC is not appropriately regulated, resulting in increased fluid and sodium resorption from the airways and formation of a contracted viscous surface liquid layer. In the sweat glands both Na+ and Cl- ions are retained in the lumen, causing significant loss of electrolytes during sweating. Thus, elevated sweat NaCl concentration is the basis of the classic pilocarpine-induced sweat test as a diagnostic feature of the disease. Here we discuss the ion movement of Cl- and Na+ ions in two tissues, sweat glands and in the air surface as well as the role of ENaC in the pathogenesis of cystic fibrosis.
الموضوعات
Humans , Biological Transport/physiology , Cell Membrane Permeability/physiology , Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator/physiology , Cystic Fibrosis/physiopathology , Epithelial Sodium Channels/physiologyالملخص
En la última década se ha aportado clara evidencia de que tanto nucleósidos como nucleótidos de adenina y uridina pueden funcionar como factores de señalización extracelular. Su acción es mediada por dos tipos principales de receptores de superficie denominados purinérgicos. Los receptores P1 se activan por adenosina, y son todos metabotrópicos, mientras que los receptores de nucleótidos (ATP, ADP, UTP y UDP) y nucleótidos-azúcares (UDP-glucosa y UDP-galactosa) pueden ser metabotrópicos (P2Y) o ionotrópicos (P2X). La importancia y complejidad de este sistema de señalización se evidencia por la diversidad de mecanismos de liberación de nucleótidos al medio extracelular y por la distribución ubicua de varios grupos de ectonucleotidasas capaces de catalizar la degradación y conversión de nucleótidos. Hasta el momento se han descrito y clonado una veintena de estos receptores que modulan una variedad de respuestas, como el impulso nervioso, la respuesta inflamatoria, la secreción de insulina, la regulación del tono vascular y la percepción del dolor. En la presente revisión se describen las características estructurales y farmacológicas de los receptores purinérgicos y se analiza la interacción dinámica entre estos receptores, los nucleósidos y nucleótidos, y las ectonucleotidasas, con especial atención a la dinámica de la agregación plaquetaria, la respuesta inmune y la hidratación de las mucosas respiratorias.
In the last decade evidence accumulated that nucleosides and nucleotides of both uridine and adenine can act as extracellular signaling factors. Their action is mediated by two main types of surface receptors commonly known as purinergic. P1 receptors are metabotropic and activated by adenosine, whereas receptors for nucleotides (ATP, ADP, UTP and UDP) and nucleotide-sugars (UDP-glucose and UDP-galactose) can be either metabotropic (P2Y) or ionotropic (P2X). The importance and complexity of this signaling system is evidenced by various mechanisms of nucleotide release, as well as by the ibiquitous distribution of various types of ectonucleotidases which catalyze and convert extracellular nucleotides. Up to now about twenty receptors have been cloned and found to modulate the nerve impulse, inflammatory response, insuline secretion, the regulation of the vascular tone and nociception, among other processes. In the present review we describe the main structural and pharmacological features of purinergic receptors, and analyze how the dynamic interaction between these receptors, nucleotides and nucleosides, and ectonucleotidases modulate several biological responses. Particular focus is given to platelet aggregation and thrombus formation, the immune response and the hydration of the mucosal linings of the respiratory tract.
الموضوعات
Animals , Humans , Antigens, CD/physiology , Apyrase/physiology , Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator/physiology , Nucleotides/physiology , Platelet Aggregation/physiology , Receptors, Purinergic/physiology , Lung Diseases/drug therapy , Nucleotidases/physiology , Nucleotides/pharmacology , Platelet Aggregation/drug effects , Receptors, Purinergic/therapeutic use , Signal Transduction/physiologyالملخص
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by chronic pneumopathy, pancreatic insufficiency, elevated sweat chloride levels and male infertility. It is caused by defects in the CF trans membrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene, which encodes a protein that functions as a chloride channel. The identification of the CF-causing gene was a landmark in molecular medicine. Currently, over 1,300 disease-causing mutations have been reported to the Cystic fibrosis genetic analysis consortium. ÁF508 mutation is the most common CF alíele, however a high heterogeneity of the CFTR mutations spectrum has been observed in populations, particularly in southern Europe and Latin America. Depending on the effect at the protein level, CFTR mutations can be divided in at least 5 classes. These mutations could cause totally (classes I-III) or partially (classes IV and V) loss of the protein function. The molecular defects resulting from different mutations in CFTR partially explain the clinical heterogeneity of the disease, suggesting the existence of modifier genes that are involved in modulating the phenotype and severity of the CF. In this review, we discuss the fundamental aspects and the recent progress that could give to the lector, the knowledge to understand the CFTR gene structure, the function of the CFTR protein, how CF mutations disrupt it, its phenotype consequences and finally, the strategies to design new therapies for the disease.
La fibrosis quística (FQ) es un padecimiento autosómico recesivo que se caracteriza por neumopatía crónica, insuficiencia pancreática, elevación de cloruros en sudor e infertilidad masculina. Esta patología es causada por la presencia de mutaciones en el gen CFTR que codifica para un canal de cloro denominado proteína reguladora de la conductancia transmembranal (CFTR). Hasta la fecha se han reportado alrededor de 1,300 mutaciones diferentes, cuya frecuencia varía entre los diversos grupos étnicos. Estas mutaciones condicionan la pérdida total (clases I, II y III) o parcial (clases IV y V) de la función de la proteína y causan un defecto en el transporte de electrólitos en la membrana apical de las células epiteliales. Con excepción de la función pancreática, las manifestaciones clínicas de la FQ son variables aun en pacientes con el mismo genotipo, por lo que la presencia de las diferentes mutaciones en el CFTR explica sólo parcialmente la heterogeneidad clínica de la FQ. Recientemente se ha propuesto que otros genes denominados genes modificadores participan en la gravedad del cuadro clínico. Así, la FQ es una enfermedad genética que resulta en un amplio espectro de manifestaciones clínicas que pueden ir desde muy leves hasta conducir a la muerte durante los primeros meses de vida, por lo que en algunos casos el diagnóstico es sumamente complejo. En los últimos años, el gran alud de conocimientos ha permitido entender el defecto básico de la enfermedad y los mecanismos que la condicionan, por lo que en esta revisión se discuten los fundamentos para el entendimiento de la fisiopatología de la FQ, desde los aspectos clínicos hasta los avances moleculares más recientes.
الموضوعات
Humans , Cystic Fibrosis/genetics , Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator/genetics , Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator/physiology , Cystic Fibrosis/diagnosis , Cystic Fibrosis/therapy , Mutation , Pedigreeالملخص
The cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator (CFTR) is a Cl- channel. Mutations of this transporter lead to a defect of chloride secretion by epithelial cells causing the Cystic Fibrosis disease (CF). In spite of the high expression of CFTR in the kidney, patients with CF do not show major renal dysfunction, but it is known that both the urinary excretion of drugs and the renal capacity to concentrate and dilute urine is deficient. CFTR mRNA is expressed in all nephron segments and its protein is involved with chloride secretion in the distal tubule, and the principal cells of the cortical (CCD) and medullary (IMCD) collecting ducts. Several studies have demonstrated that CFTR does not only transport Cl- but also secretes ATP and, thus, controls other conductances such as Na+ (ENaC) and K+ (ROMK2) channels, especially in CCD. In the polycystic kidney the secretion of chloride through CFTR contributes to the cyst enlargement. This review is focused on the role of CFTR in the kidney and the implications of extracellular volume regulators, such as hormones, on its function and expression.
الموضوعات
Humans , Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator/physiology , Kidney/metabolism , Chlorides/metabolism , Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator/isolation & purification , Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator/metabolism , Cystic Fibrosis/metabolism , Cystic Fibrosis/physiopathologyالملخص
No abstract available.
الموضوعات
Humans , Adenosine Triphosphate/pharmacology , Anions/metabolism , Bicarbonates/metabolism , Chlorides/metabolism , Cyclic AMP/pharmacology , Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator/physiology , Electric Conductivity , Electrophysiology , Gluconates/pharmacology , Membrane Potentials/physiology , Membrane Potentials/drug effects , Potassium/pharmacology , Sweat Glands/metabolismالملخص
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a lethal autosomal recessive genetic disease caused by mutations in the CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). Mutations in the CFTR gene may result in a defective processing of its protein and alter the function and regulation of this channel. Mutations are associated with different symptoms, including pancreatic insufficiency, bile duct obstruction, infertility in males, high sweat Cl-, intestinal obstruction, nasal polyp formation, chronic sinusitis, mucus dehydration, and chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus lung infection, responsible for 90 percent of the mortality of CF patients. The gene responsible for the cellular defect in CF was cloned in 1989 and its protein product CFTR is activated by an increase of intracellular cAMP. The CFTR contains two membrane domains, each with six transmembrane domain segments, two nucleotide-binding domains (NBDs), and a cytoplasmic domain. In this review we discuss the studies that have correlated the role of each CFTR domain in the protein function as a chloride channel and as a regulator of the outwardly rectifying Cl- channels (ORCCs)