Anesthesia and cancer recurrence: a narrative review

Cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide. With the increasingly aging population, the number of emerging cancer cases is expected to increase markedly in the foreseeable future. Surgical resection with adjuvant therapy is the best available option for the potential cure of many solid tumors; thus, approximately 80% of patients with cancer undergo at least one surgical procedure during their disease. Agents used in general anesthesia can modulate cytokine release, transcription factors, and/or oncogenes. This can affect host immunity and the capability of cancer cells to survive and migrate, not only during surgery but for up to several weeks after surgery. However, it remains unknown whether exposure to anesthetic agents affects cancer recurrence or metastasis. This review explores the current literature to explain whether and how the choice of anesthetic and perioperative medication affect cancer surgery outcomes.

Driving pressure guided ventilation / 대한마취과학회지

Protective ventilation is a prevailing ventilatory strategy these days and is comprised of small tidal volume, limited inspiratory pressure, and application of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP). However, several retrospective studies recently suggested that tidal volume, inspiratory pressure, and PEEP are not related to patient outcomes, or only related when they influence the driving pressure. Therefore, this review introduces the concept of driving pressure and looks into the possibility of driving pressure-guided ventilation as a new ventilatory strategy, especially in thoracic surgery where postoperative pulmonary complications are common, and thus, lung protection is of utmost importance.

Anesthetic management of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is the third most common cause of death worldwide. It has a prevalence of 14% among Koreans aged above 40 years and a prevalence of 31% among those aged above 65 years. However, only 6% of the COPD patients receive treatment. Most of the patients do not seek medical attention, as they think that dyspnea, cough, and productive sputum, which are the common symptoms of COPD, are normal aging phenomena. Smoking is a major risk factor for COPD, but environmental hazards and genetic susceptibility are also involved. With aging, lung injuries due to these risk factors accumulate, leading to increased prevalence of COPD. The major concerns regarding perioperative management of COPD patients include preoperative evaluation of cardiopulmonary risks, optimization of lung function, and evaluation of COPD-related physiological functions that are easily aggravated during anesthesia. These include respiratory muscle dysfunction, dynamic hyperinflation and auto-positive end-expiratory pressure, hypoxia-hypercarbia, and pulmonary hypertension-associated heart failure. Therefore, anesthesia for COPD patients should focus on preoperative evaluation, risk reduction measures, and prevention of postoperative pulmonary complications.

Lung ultrasonography for thoracic surgery

Patients undergoing thoracic surgery show various lesions such as chronic obstructive lung diseases, pleural adhesion, pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome, atelectasis, pleural effusion, pulmonary edema, and pneumothorax throughout preoperative, operative, and recovery periods. Therefore, lung ultrasonography has potential for perioperative use in thoracic surgery. Benefits of lung ultrasonography over conventional chest X-ray are convincing. First, ultrasonography has higher sensitivity than X-ray in various lesions. Second, it can be performed at bed side to obtain diagnosis immediately. Third, it does not expose patients to radiologic hazard. If anesthesiologists can obtain necessary skills and perform lung ultrasonography as a routine evaluation process for patients, territory of anesthesia would become broader and patients would obtain more benefit.

Non-intubated video-assisted thoracoscopic biopsy surgery of a large anterior mediastinal mass via epidural anesthesia: A case report

Anesthesia for a patient with a large mediastinal mass is a challenge for anesthesiologists, given the risk of airway collapse and hemodynamic compromise. Moreover, there are very few reports on the anesthetic management of non-intubated video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS). Thus, in the following case report, we provide an account of the successful anesthetic management and excisional biopsy of a large anterior mediastinal mass (measuring 13 × 10 cm) utilizing non-intubated VATS. The patient was kept awake, maintaining consciousness and spontaneous respiration throughout the procedure, in order to prevent devastating airway collapse and pain control and cough prevention were achieved by thoracic epidural analgesia and lidocaine nebulization.

Whole-lung lavage complicated with pneumothorax: a case report / 대한마취과학회지

A patient with pulmonary alveolar proteinosis underwent whole lung lavage of the right lung. Lavage of the left lung was not immediately possible because of severe hypoxemia. Three days later, after correction of hypoxemia, we re-attempted the left lung lavage. However, the patient had severe hypoxemia (SpO₂< 80%) within a few minutes of performing right one lung ventilation (OLV). On bronchoscopic examination, proper tube location was confirmed. Bronchodilator nebulization and steroid injection were attempted with no effect. While searching for the cause of the hypoxemia, we found that the breath sound from the right lung had become very weak and distant compared with that from initial auscultation. Right pneumothorax was diagnosed on chest X-ray and a chest tube was inserted. After confirming pneumothorax resolution, we re-tried right OLV and were able to proceed with the left lung lavage without signs of aggravating air leak, loss of tidal volume, or severe hypoxemia.

Clinical benefits of preemptive thoracic epidural analgesia with hydromorphone and bupivacaine in open thoracotomy lung surgery

BACKGROUND: Preemptive analgesia is known to decrease the sensitization of the central nervous system and reduce subsequent amplification of nociceptive stimuli. We investigated whether preemptive thoracic epidural analgesia (TEA) demonstrated intraoperative and postoperative short and long term clinical advantages. METHODS: Thirty patients scheduled for open thoracotomy were randomly allocated to one of two groups to receive continuous TEA (0.15% bupivacaine and 8 microg/ml hydromorphone) either before surgical incision (preemptive group) or at the end of the operation (nonpreemptive group). Incidence of hypotension during surgery was recorded. Numerical rating scales (NRS) and the incidence of side effects such as nausea, pruritus, sedation, hypotension, and respiratory depression were recorded at 2, 6, 24, and 48 hours postoperatively. Pulmonary function test (PFT) was performed before, 24 and 48 hours after the operation. Persistence of pain control was investigated at 6 months postoperatively. RESULTS: The NRS score, side effects, and PFT changes were comparable between the two groups. TEA and intravenous rescue morphine consumed at 2, 6, 24, and 48 hours postoperatively were not different between the two groups. During surgery, the incidence of hypotension was significantly higher in the preemptive group (P = 0.027). At 6-month follow up, two patients in the nonpreemptive group complained of persistent pain at wound and none in the preemptive group. CONCLUSIONS: Preemptive TEA with hydromorphone and bupivacaine during surgery may cause unnecessary intraoperative hypotension without a prominent advantage in reducing acute or chronic pain or enhancing pulmonary function after thoracotomy. The advantageous concept of preemptive TEA may be dubious and may not provide perioperative clinical benefits.

Anesthesiologist's hand hygiene and disinfection of reusable rubber tourniquet with alcohol swabs before intravascular cannulation / 대한마취과학회지

No abstract available.

Comparison of respiratory mechanics between sevoflurane and propofol-remifentanil anesthesia for laparoscopic colectomy / 대한마취과학회지

BACKGROUND: The creation of pneumoperitoneum and Trendelenburg positioning during laparoscopic surgery are associated with respiratory changes. We aimed to compare respiratory mechanics while using intravenous propofol and remifentanil vs. sevoflurane during laparoscopic colectomy. METHODS: Sixty patients undergoing laparoscopic colectomy were randomly allocated to one of the two groups: group PR (propofol-remifentanil group; n = 30), and group S (sevoflurane group; n = 30). Peak inspiratory pressure (PIP), dynamic lung compliance (Cdyn), and respiratory resistance (Rrs) values at five different time points: 5 minutes after induction of anesthesia (supine position, T1), 3 minutes after pneumoperitoneum (lithotomy position, T2), 3 minutes after pneumoperitoneum while in the lithotomy-Trendelenburg position (T3), 30 minutes after pneumoperitoneum (T4), and 3 minutes after deflation of pneumoperitoneum (T5). RESULTS: In both groups, there were significant increases in PIP and Rrs while Cdyn decreased at times T2, T3, and T4 compared to T1 (P < 0.001). The Rrs of group PR for T2, T3, and T4 were significantly higher than those measured in group S for the corresponding time points (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Respiratory mechanics can be adversely affected during laparoscopic colectomy. Respiratory resistance was significantly higher during propofol-remifentanil anesthesia than sevoflurane anesthesia.

Lung transplantation in a patient with massive pneumomediastinum following 66 days of awake extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support: A case report

In a 54-year-old man with interstitial lung disease associated with dermatomyositis, acute exacerbation of the disease had occurred and massive pneumothorax, pneumomediastinum and extensive subcutaneous emphysema were developed while waiting for lung transplantation. He was supported by awake extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) for 66 days and bridged to lung transplantation, but mechanical ventilation was not done during ECMO period and induction period to avoid tension pneumothorax and cardiac tamponade. Notable points of this report are that the days of ECMO support were long, the type was awake ECMO, and positive pressure ventilation was not done during whole pretransplant period including anesthesia induction. The transplantation was done successfully and the patient was discharged 25 days after lung transplantation.

Respiratory insufficiency and dynamic hyperinflation after rigid bronchoscopy in a patient with relapsing polychondritis: a case report / 대한마취과학회지

Relapsing polychondritis (RP) is an uncommon disease that is characterized by inflammation and destruction of cartilaginous structures. When tracheobronchial tree is involved, respiratory obstructive symptoms can occur. A 35-year-old man, with a previous diagnosis of RP, was scheduled for rigid bronchoscopy to relieve dyspnea, caused by subglottic stenosis. After laser splitting of the subglottic web, the spontaneous respiration of the patient was insufficient, and hypercarbia developed progressively even with assisted ventilation. After 20 minutes of aggressive hyperventilation to reduce end-tidal CO2 level, sudden extreme tachycardia and hypotension developed. Ventilation rate was reduced and prolonged expiration time was allowed to alleviate a near-tampon status from dynamic hyperinflation. After the hemodynamic status was stabilized, the patient was transferred to the ICU for mechanical ventilation. He received ICU care for 30 days, and now, he was on supportive care on a ward, considering Y stent insertion to prevent luminal collapse from tracheobronchomalacia.

Risk score for postoperative complications in thoracic surgery / 대한마취과학회지

BACKGROUND: Risk scoring system for thoracic surgery patients have not been widely used, as of recently. We tried to forge a risk scoring system that predicts the risk of postoperative complications in patients undergoing major thoracic surgery. We used a prolonged ICU stay as a representative of postoperative complications and tested various possible risk factors for its relation. METHODS: Data from all patients who underwent major lung and esophageal cancer surgeries, between 2005 and 2007 in our hospital, were collected retrospectively (n = 858). Multiple logistic regression analysis was performed with various possible risk factors to build the risk scoring system for prolonged ICU stay (> 3 days). RESULTS: A total of 9% of patients exhibited more than 3 days of ICU stay. Age, operation name, preoperative lung injury, no epidural analgesia, and predicted post operative forced expiratory volume in 1 second (ppoFEV1) were the risk factors for prolonged ICU stay, by multivariable analysis (P < 0.05). Risk score, p was derived from the formula: logit(p/[1-p]) = -5.39 + 0.06 x age + 1.12 x operation name(2) + 1.52 x operation name(3) + 1.32 x operation name(4) + 1.56 x operation name(5) + 1.30 x preoperative lung injury + 0.72 x no epidural analgesia - 0.02 x ppoFEV1 [Age in years, operation name(2): pneumonectomy, operation name(3): esophageal cancer operation, operation name(4): completion pneumonectomy, operation name(5): extended operation, preoperative lung injury(+), epidural analgesia(-), ppoFEV1 in %]. CONCLUSIONS: Age, operation name, preoperative lung injury, epidural analgesia, and ppoFEV1 can predict postoperative morbidity in thoracic surgery patients.

Risk Factors for Postoperative Complications after Open Infrarenal Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Repair in Koreans

PURPOSE: Open infrarenal abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) repair is performed without event in most cases. However, some patients suffer major morbidities such as renal failure, myocardial infarction, paraplegia, acute respiratory distress syndrome, or hepatic dysfunction. Predicting what kinds of patient populations are more prone to develop such complications may keep the clinicians more attentive to the patients, possibly leading to better prognoses. In this retrospective study, we searched the incidence of and risk factors for postoperative complications and their predictive equations in 162 patients who underwent open infrarenal AAA repair. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Postoperative complications were observed within 30 days. Patient characteristics, types of aneurysm and surgery, and hemodynamic and metabolic variables during the periclamp period were analyzed in relation to postoperative complications using multiple logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: Postoperative complications involved the cardiac (20%), pulmonary (14%), renal (13%), gastrointestinal (6%), hepatic (3.1%), and neurologic (2.5%) systems, and bleeding occurred in 1.2% of cases. The mortality rate was 5.6%. The risk factors were age [> 67 yrs, odds ratio (OR) 2.6], clamp duration (> 110 min, OR 4.7), volume of blood transfusion (> 1,280 mL, OR 4.4), emergency operation (OR 1.4), and vasopressor infusion during clamp (OR 1.4). The prediction model was: P(x) = exp(alpha)/[1 + exp(alpha)] alpha;-2.2 + 0.9 x age + 1.5 x clamp duration + 1.5 x transfusion + 0.3 x emergency + 0.4 x vasopressor infusion [insert 1 if risk factors exist, otherwise, insert 0 to each variable]. CONCLUSION: A significant number of complications occurred after infrarenal AAA repair. Therefore, creating a protocol to identify and monitor high risk patients would improve postoperative care.

Postoperative nausea and vomiting after endoscopic thyroidectomy: total intravenous vs. balanced anesthesia / 대한마취과학회지

BACKGROUND: Endoscopic thyroidectomy was recently introduced and has been rapidly accepted by surgeons and patients. The present study was conducted to estimate and compare the incidences of postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) after endoscopic thyroidectomy using two different anesthetic methods: sevoflurane based balanced anesthesia; total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA). METHODS: Ninety nine female patients that were scheduled to undergo elective endoscopic thyroidectomy under general anesthesia were enrolled. These patients were randomly allocated to receive sevoflurane based balanced anesthesia (BA group) or propofol-remifentanil anesthesia (TIVA group). PONV was evaluated using a 4-point Likert scale, and pain using a visual analogue scale (VAS; range 0 to 100) for 0-2, 2-6, and 6-24 hours postoperatively. At 24 hours postoperatively, overall patient satisfaction regarding PONV and pain were recorded. RESULTS: The incidence of PONV was 14.6% in the TIVA group and 51.3% in the BA group. The incidence of nausea at 0-2 and 2-6 hours postoperatively was lower in the TIVA group than in the BA group (4.2% vs. 35.9%, 6.3% vs. 23.1%, respectively), but no between-group difference was observed at 6-24 hours postoperatively (8.3% vs. 5.1%). Antiemetic usage at 0-2 and 2-6 hours was lower in the TIVA than the BA group (4.2% vs. 38.5%, 6.3% vs. 23.1%), but no between-group difference was observed for 6-24 hours (6.3% vs. 7.7%). There were no differences in pain or in patient satisfaction. CONCLUSIONS: After endoscopic thyroidectomy, total intravenous anesthesia with propofol-remifentanil is associated with less PONV during the early postoperative period (0-6 hours) than sevoflurane based balanced anesthesia.

General anesthesia in a patient with known bronchial anthracofibrosis: A case report / 대한마취과학회지

Bronchial anthracosis was recently defined in the English radiology literature as a luminal narrowing associated with anthracotic pigmentation on bronchoscopy without a relevant history of pneumoconiosis or smoking. Anthracosis refers to the presence of carbon particles in the lungs, not to a disorder per se. Anthracofibrotic lesions carry the potential risk of massive hemorrhage during endobronchial procedures. This report describes a case of general anesthesia for a left modified radical mastectomy due to an intraductal carcinoma in a patient with known bronchial anthracofibrosis.

Comparison of the effectiveness of lidocaine and salbutamol on coughing provoked by intravenous remifentanil during anesthesia induction / 대한마취과학회지

BACKGROUND: Coughing is a side effect of opioids that is rarely studied. Here, we evaluated the incidence of remifentanil induced coughing during anesthesia induction in an attempt to identify its risk factors and to examine the preventive effects of lidocaine and salbutamol. METHODS: A total of 237 patients scheduled to undergo general anesthesia were allocated randomly into three groups. Group C received no medication, while Group L received 2% lidocaine at 0.5 mg/kg intravenously 1 minute prior to remifentanil infusion and Group S inhaled one metered aerosol puff of salbutamol 15 minutes prior to entering the operating room. Remifentanil was infused at 5 ng/ml by target controlled infusion and coughing was measured for five minutes and graded as none, mild, moderate, or severe based on the number of coughs. RESULTS: The incidences of coughing were 30.4%, 25.3%, and 35.4% in Groups C, L, and S, respectively. The incidences, onset times, and severity of coughing did not differ significantly among groups. In addition, multivariate analysis showed that non-smoking and a lower body weight were risk factors of remifentanil-induced coughing (odds ratio, 8.13; P = 0.024, 1.11, and 0.004, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of remifentanil-induced coughing was 30%. A total of 0.5 mg/kg lidocaine and 1 metered aerosol puff of salbutamol did not prevent coughing. Non-smoking and low body weight were found to be risk factors of remifentanil-induced coughing.

Does a single dose of intravenous nicardipine or nimodipine affect the bispectral index following rapid sequence intubation? / 대한마취과학회지

BACKGROUND: Theoretically, L-type calcium channel blockers could modulate anesthetic effects. Nicardipine does not affect the bispectral index (BIS), but nimodipine, which can penetrate the blood-brain barrier, has not been studied. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether a single dose of intravenous nicardipine or nimodipine could affect BIS following rapid sequence intubation. METHODS: This study was done in a double-blind, randomized fashion. Anesthesia was induced with fentanyl 2 microgram/kg, thiopental sodium 5 mg/kg, and 100% oxygen. After loss of consciousness, patients received rocuronium 1.0 mg/kg and either a bolus of 20 microgram/kg nicardipine, nimodipine, or a comparable volume of normal saline (n = 20). Intubation was performed 1 min after study drug administration. BIS, mean blood pressure (MBP), and heart rate (HR) were measured before anesthetic induction, after loss of consciousness, before intubation, during intubation, and 1, 2 and 5 min after intubation. RESULTS: BIS dropped rapidly after induction but increased to 60 before intubation in all groups irrespective of study drug. In nimodipine, the increase in BIS during intubation was not significant compared to pre-intubation, in contrast to the other two groups, but there was no difference in BIS during intubation. HR significantly increased, but MBP just rose to pre-induction values after intubation in nicardipine and nimodipine groups. BIS, MBP, and HR following intubation increased in control group. CONCLUSIONS: A single dose of intravenous nicardipine or nimodipine could attenuate blood pressure increases but not affect BIS increases in rapid sequence intubation.

Comparison of coagulation factors and blood loss between O and non-O blood types following hydroxyethyl starch infusion / 대한마취과학회지

BACKGROUND: Individuals with type O blood are more likely to have reduced factor VIII and von Willebrand factor levels compared to their non-O counterparts. Hydroxyethyl starch (HES), which is widely used for blood volume replacement, can induce coagulopathy. Therefore, we tested whether blood type O patients show more coagulopathy and blood loss than non-O patients after infusion of 6% HES. METHODS: Thirty-four non-O and 20 type O patients scheduled for posterior lumbar interbody fusion (PLIF) involving 3 vertebrae or less from June 2007 to August 2008 were enrolled. Fifteen ml/kg of 6% HES was administered during the operation. Coagulation profiles was checked at pre-infusion (T0), 5 min after the end of infusion (T1), 3 hr after the end of infusion (T2), and 24 hr after the end of infusion (T3). Bleeding was measured during and after surgery for 24 hours. RESULTS: Baseline factor VIII concentration was lower and aPTT was longer in type O patients compared to those of non-O patients. 6% HES infusion decreased most of the coagulation factors at T1 in both groups, which were recovered in a time dependent manner. Factor VIII and aPTT of blood type O patients fell off the normal range at T1. However, other coagulation factors, thromboelastography variables, and blood loss were not different between the groups. CONCLUSIONS: Despite inborn low factor VIII which further decreased shortly after HES infusion, blood type O patients did not show more blood loss than non-O blood type after 15 ml/kg of HES infusion in PLIF surgery.

Interactions of propofol and remifentanil on bispectral index under 66% N2O: analysis by dose-effect curve, isobologram, and combination index / 대한마취과학회지

BACKGROUND: Propofol and remifentanil are usually co-administered and have shown synergistic effect for anesthesia. However, the synergistic effect of the two drugs on hypnosis measured by bispectral index (BIS) was controversial in previous studies. The aim of this study was to identify the interaction of propofol and remifentanil on BIS and the optimal dose combinations for hypnosis under 66% N2O during surgery. METHODS: Patients (age 55-75 and American Society of Anesthesiologists [ASA] 1-2) undergoing gastrectomy were enrolled in this study. Propofol and remifentanil were co-administered incrementally at 1 : 1 potent ratio (the P1R1 group), at 1 : 2 potent ratio (the P1R2 group), or at 2 : 1 potent ratio (the P2R1 group) using effect site target-controlled infusion and BIS was measured. 66% N2O was concomitantly administered to all groups. The dose-effect curves, the 90% effective dose (EC90) for adequate hypnosis (BIS 40), isobolograms and combination index were obtained by Calcusyn program (Biosoft) to reveal the interaction of propofol and remifentanil. RESULTS: The P2R1 group showed synergistic action on BIS. However, the other groups needed larger amount of each drug than the doses of additive action. The EC90 of the P2R1 group was propofol, 3.34 microg/ml and remifentanil, 2.41 ng/ml under 66% of N2O. CONCLUSIONS: Propofol dominant co-administration is needed for dose reduction in BIS guided hypnosis.

Protective Effects of Gabapentin on Allodynia and alpha2delta1-Subunit of Voltage-dependent Calcium Channel in Spinal Nerve-Ligated Rats

This study was designed to determine whether early gabapentin treatment has a protective analgesic effect on neuropathic pain and compared its effect to the late treatment in a rat neuropathic model, and as the potential mechanism of protective action, the alpha2delta1-subunit of the voltage-dependent calcium channel (alpha2delta1-subunit) was evaluated in both sides of the L5 dorsal root ganglia (DRG). Neuropathic pain was induced in male Sprague-Dawley rats by a surgical ligation of left L5 nerve. For the early treatment group, rats were injected with gabapentin (100 mg/kg) intraperitoneally 15 min prior to surgery and then every 24 hr during postoperative day (POD) 1-4. For the late treatment group, the same dose of gabapentin was injected every 24 hr during POD 8-12. For the control group, L5 nerve was ligated but no gabapentin was administered. In the early treatment group, the development of allodynia was delayed up to POD 10, whereas allodynia was developed on POD 2 in the control and the late treatment group (p<0.05). The alpha2delta1-subunit was up-regulated in all groups, however, there was no difference in the level of the alpha2delta1-subunit among the three groups. These results suggest that early treatment with gabapentin offers some protection against neuropathic pain but it is unlikely that this action is mediated through modulation of the alpha2delta1-subunit in DRG.