Neutrophil Migration Is Mediated by VLA-6 in the Inflamed Adipose Tissue

Adipose tissue, well known for its endocrine function, plays an immunological role in the body. The inflamed adipose tissue under LPS-induced systemic inflammation is characterized by the dominance of pro-inflammatory immune cells, particularly neutrophils.Although migration of macrophages toward damaged or dead adipocytes to form a crownlike structure in inflamed adipose tissue has been revealed, the neutrophilic interaction with adipocytes or the extracellular matrix remains unknown. Here, we demonstrated the involvement of adhesion molecules, particularly integrin α6β1, of neutrophils in adipocytes or the extracellular matrix of inflamed adipose tissue interaction. These results suggest that disrupting the adhesion between adipose tissue components and neutrophils may govern the accumulation of excessive neutrophils in inflamed tissues, a prerequisite in developing antiinflammatory therapeutics by inhibiting inflammatory immune cells.

Baicalein Inhibits αα-Melanocyte-stimulating Hormonestimulated Melanogenesis via p38 Mitogen-activated Protein Kinase Pathway in B16F10 Mouse Melanoma Cells

Excessive UVB exposure causes development of both malignant and non-malignant melanoma via the secretion of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH). We investigated whether baicalein (5,6,7-trihydroxyflavone) could inhibit α-MSH-stimulated melanogenesis. Baicalein prevented UVB- and α-MSH-induced melanin production and attenuated α-MSH-stimulated tyrosinase (monophenol monooxygenase) activity, and expression of tyrosinase and tyrosine-related protein-2. In addition, baicalein prevented melanogenesis and pigmentation via the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases signaling pathway. These findings suggest that baicalein represents a natural compound for attenuating melanogenesis.

Enhancement of Radiosensitivity by DNA Hypomethylating Drugs through Apoptosis and Autophagy in Human Sarcoma Cells

The targeting of DNA methylation in cancer using DNA hypomethylating drugs has been well known to sensitize cancer cells to chemotherapy and immunotherapy by affecting multiple pathways. Herein, we investigated the combinational effects of DNA hypomethylating drugs and ionizing radiation (IR) in human sarcoma cell lines both in vitro and in vivo. Clonogenic assays were performed to determine the radiosensitizing properties of two DNA hypomethylating drugs on sarcoma cell lines we tested in this study with multiple doses of IR. We analyzed the effects of 5-aza-dC or SGI-110, as DNA hypomethylating drugs, in combination with IR in vitro on the proliferation, apoptosis, caspase-3/7 activity, migration/invasion, and Western blotting using apoptosis- or autophagy-related factors. To confirm the combined effect of DNA hypomethylating drugs and IR in our in vitro experiment, we generated the sarcoma cells in nude mouse xenograft models. Here, we found that the combination of DNA hypomethylating drugs and IR improved anticancer effects by inhibiting cell proliferation and by promoting synergistic cell death that is associated with both apoptosis and autophagy in vitro and in vivo. Our data demonstrated that the combination effects of DNA hypomethylating drugs with radiation exhibited greater cellular effects than the use of a single agent treatment, thus suggesting that the combination of DNA hypomethylating drugs and radiation may become a new radiotherapy to improve therapeutic efficacy for cancer treatment.

Natural Compound Shikonin Induces Apoptosis and Attenuates Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition in Radiation-Resistant Human Colon Cancer Cells

Radiation resistance represents an imperative obstacle in the treatment of patients with colorectal cancer, which remains difficult to overcome. Here, we explored the anti-proliferative and migration-inhibiting properties of the natural product shikonin on a radiation-resistant human colon carcinoma cell line (SNU-C5RR). Shikonin reduced the viability of these cells in a dose-dependent manner; 38 μM of shikonin was determined as the half-maximal inhibitory concentration. Shikonin induced apoptotic cell death, as demonstrated by increased apoptotic body formation and the number of TUNEL-positive cells. Moreover, shikonin enhanced mitochondrial membrane depolarization and Bax expression and also decreased Bcl-2 expression with translocation of cytochrome c from mitochondria into the cytosol. In addition, shikonin activated mitogen-activated protein kinases, and their specific inhibitors reduced the cytotoxic effects of shikonin. Additionally, shikonin decreased the migration of SNU-C5RR cells via the upregulation of E-cadherin and downregulation of N-cadherin. Taken together, these results suggest that shikonin induces mitochondria-mediated apoptosis and attenuates epithelial-mesenchymal transition in SNU-C5RR cells.

The Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Response Mediates Shikonin-Induced Apoptosis of 5-Fluorouracil–Resistant Colorectal Cancer Cells

Resistance to chemotherapeutic drugs is a significant problem in the treatment of colorectal cancer, resulting in low response rates and decreased survival. Recent studies have shown that shikonin, a naphthoquinone derivative, promotes apoptosis in colon cancer cells and cisplatin-resistant ovarian cells, raising the possibility that this compound may be effective in drug-resistant colorectal cancer. The aim of this study was to characterize the molecular mechanisms underpinning shikonin-induced apoptosis, with a focus on endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, in a 5-fluorouracil–resistant colorectal cancer cell line, SNU-C5/5-FUR. Our results showed that shikonin significantly increased the proportion of sub-G1 cells and DNA fragmentation and that shikonin-induced apoptosis is mediated by mitochondrial Ca 2+ accumulation. Shikonin treatment also increased the expression of ER-related proteins, such as glucose regulatory protein 78 (GRP78), phospho-protein kinase RNA-like ER kinase (PERK), phospho-eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2α), phospho-phosphoinositol-requiring protein-1 (IRE1), spliced X-box–binding protein-1 (XBP-1), cleaved caspase-12, and C/EBP-homologous protein (CHOP). In addition, siRNA-mediated knockdown of CHOP attenuated shikonininduced apoptosis, as did the ER stress inhibitor TUDCA. These data suggest that ER stress is a key factor mediating the cytotoxic effect of shikonin in SNU-C5/5-FUR cells. Our findings provide an evidence for a mechanism in which ER stress leads to apoptosis in shikonin-treated SNU-C5/5-FUR cells. Our study provides evidence to support further investigations on shikonin as a therapeutic option for 5-fluorouracil–resistant colorectal cancer.

Suppression of Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammatory and Oxidative Response by 5-Aminolevulinic Acid in RAW 264.7 Macrophages and Zebrafish Larvae

In this study, we investigated the inhibitory effect of 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), a heme precursor, on inflammatory and oxidative stress activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in RAW 264.7 macrophages by estimating nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), cytokines, and reactive oxygen species (ROS). We also evaluated the molecular mechanisms through analysis of the expression of their regulatory genes, and further evaluated the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant efficacy of ALA against LPS in the zebrafish model. Our results indicated that ALA treatment significantly attenuated the LPS-induced release of pro-inflammatory mediators including NO and PGE2, which was associated with decreased inducible NO synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 expression. ALA also inhibited the LPS-induced expression of pro- inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6, reducing their extracellular secretion. Additionally, ALA abolished ROS generation, improved the mitochondrial mass, and enhanced the expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and the activation of nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. However, zinc protoporphyrin, a specific inhibitor of HO-1, reversed the ALA-mediated inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines production and activation of mitochondrial function in LPS-treated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Furthermore, ALA significantly abolished the expression of LPS-induced pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines, and showed strong protective effects against NO and ROS production in zebrafish larvae. In conclusion, our findings suggest that ALA exerts LPS-induced anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects by upregulating the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway, and that ALA can be a potential functional agent to prevent inflammatory and oxidative damage.

Phloroglucinol Attenuates Ultraviolet B-Induced 8-Oxoguanine Formation in Human HaCaT Keratinocytes through Akt and ErkMediated Nrf2/Ogg1 Signaling Pathways

Ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation causes DNA base modifications. One of these changes leads to the generation of 8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG) due to oxidative stress. In human skin, this modification may induce sunburn, inflammation, and aging and may ultimately result in cancer. We investigated whether phloroglucinol (1,3,5-trihydroxybenzene), by enhancing the expression and activity of 8-oxoG DNA glycosylase 1 (Ogg1), had an effect on the capacity of UVB-exposed human HaCaT keratinocytes to repair oxidative DNA damage. Here, the effects of phloroglucinol were investigated using a luciferase activity assay, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reactions, western blot analysis, and a chromatin immunoprecipitation assay. Phloroglucinol restored Ogg1 activity and decreased the formation of 8-oxoG in UVB-exposed cells. Moreover, phloroglucinol increased Ogg1 transcription and protein expression, counteracting the UVB-induced reduction in Ogg1 levels. Phloroglucinol also enhanced the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) as well as Nrf2 binding to an antioxidant response element located in the Ogg1 gene promoter. UVB exposure inhibited the phosphorylation of protein kinase B (PKB or Akt) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk), two major enzymes involved in cell protection against oxidative stress, regulating the activity of Nrf2. Akt and Erk phosphorylation was restored by phloroglucinol in the UVB-exposed keratinocytes. These results indicated that phloroglucinol attenuated UVB-induced 8-oxoG formation in keratinocytes via an Akt/Erk-dependent, Nrf2/Ogg1-mediated signaling pathway.

Myristoleic Acid Promotes Anagen Signaling by Autophagy through Activating Wnt/β-Catenin and ERK Pathways in Dermal Papilla Cells

Alopecia is a distressing condition caused by the dysregulation of anagen, catagen, and telogen in the hair cycle. Dermal papilla cells (DPCs) regulate the hair cycle and play important roles in hair growth and regeneration. Myristoleic acid (MA) increases Wnt reporter activity in DPCs. However, the action mechanisms of MA on the stimulation of anagen signaling in DPCs is not known. In this study, we evaluated the effects of MA on anagen-activating signaling pathways in DPCs. MA significantly increased DPC proliferation and stimulated the G2/M phase, accompanied by increasing cyclin A, Cdc2, and cyclin B1. To elucidate the mechanism by which MA promotes DPC proliferation, we evaluated the effect of MA on autophagy and intracellular pathways. MA induced autophagosome formation by decreasing the levels of the phospho-mammalian target of rapamycin (phospho-mTOR) and increasing autophagy-related 7 (Atg7) and microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-light chain 3II (LC3II). MA also increased the phosphorylation levels of Wnt/β-catenin proteins, such as GSK3β ( Ser9 ) and β-catenin (Ser 552 and Ser675 ). Treatment with XAV939, an inhibitor of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, attenuated the MA-induced increase in β-catenin nuclear translocation. Moreover, XAV939 reduced MA-induced effects on cell cycle progression, autophagy, and DPC proliferation. On the other hand, MA increased the levels of phospho (Thr202 /Tyr204 )-extracellular signal regulated kinases (ERK). MA-induced ERK phosphorylation led to changes in the expression levels of Cdc2, Atg7 and LC3II, as well as DPC proliferation. Our results suggest that MA promotes anagen signaling via autophagy and cell cycle progression by activating the Wnt/β-catenin and ERK pathways in DPCs.

Fucoidan Induces Apoptosis in A2058 Cells through ROS-exposed Activation of MAPKs Signaling Pathway

Fucoidan, a natural component of brown seaweed, has various biological activities such as anticancer activity, anti-oxidant, and anti-inflammatory against various cancer cells. However, the fucoidan has been implicated in melanoma cells via apoptosis signaling pathway. Therefore, we investigated apoptosis with fucoidan in A2058 human melanoma cells with dose- and time-dependent manners. In our results, A2058 cells viability decreased at relatively short-time and low-concentration through fucoidan. This effects of fucoidan on A2058 cells appeared to be mediated by the induction of apoptosis, as manifested by morphological changes through DNA-binding dye Hoechst 33342 staining. When a dose of 80 µg/mL fucoidan was treated, the cells were observed: crescent or ring-like structure, chromatin condensation, and nuclear fragmentation. With the increase at 100 µg/mL fucoidan, the cell membrane is intact throughout the total process, including membrane blebbing and loss of membrane integrity as well as increase of sub-G1 DNA. Furthermore, to understand the exact mechanism of fucoidan-treated in A2058 cells, western blotting was performed to detect apoptosis-related protein expression. In this study, Bcl-2 family proteins can be regulated by fucoidan, suggesting that fucoidaninduced apoptosis is modulated by intrinsic pathway. Therefore, expression of Bcl-2 and Bax may result in altered permeability, activating caspase-3 and caspase-9. And the cleaved form of poly ADP-ribose polymerase was detected in fucoidan-treated A2058 cells. These results suggest that A2058 cells are highly sensitive to growth inhibition by fucoidan via apoptosis, as evidenced by activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases/ p38/Bcl-2 family signaling, as well as alteration in caspase-9 and caspase-3.

Vanillic Acid Stimulates Anagen Signaling via the PI3K/Akt/ β-Catenin Pathway in Dermal Papilla Cells

The hair cycle (anagen, catagen, and telogen) is regulated by the interaction between mesenchymal cells and epithelial cells in the hair follicles. The proliferation of dermal papilla cells (DPCs), mesenchymal-derived fibroblasts, has emerged as a target for the regulation of the hair cycle. Here, we show that vanillic acid, a phenolic acid from wheat bran, promotes the proliferation of DPCs via a PI3K/Akt/Wnt/β-catenin dependent mechanism. Vanillic acid promoted the proliferation of DPCs, accompanied by increased levels of cell-cycle proteins cyclin D1, CDK6, and Cdc2 p34. Vanillic acid also increased the levels of phospho(ser473)- Akt, phospho(ser780)-pRB, and phospho(thr37/46)-4EBP1 in a time-dependent manner. Wortmannin, an inhibitor of the PI3K/ Akt pathway, attenuated the vanillic acid-mediated proliferation of DPCs. Vanillic acid-induced progression of the cell-cycle was also suppressed by wortmannin. Moreover, vanillic acid increased the levels of Wnt/β-catenin proteins, such as phospho(ser9)- glycogen synthase kinase-3β, phospho(ser552)-β-catenin, and phospho(ser675)-β-catenin. We found that vanillic acid increased the levels of cyclin D1 and Cox-2, which are target genes of β-catenin, and these changes were inhibited by wortmannin. To investigate whether vanillic acid affects the downregulation of β-catenin by dihydrotestosterone (DHT), implicated in the development of androgenetic alopecia, DPCs were stimulated with DHT in the presence and absence of vanillic acid for 24 h. Western blotting and confocal microscopy analyses showed that the decreased level of β-catenin after the incubation with DHT was reversed by vanillic acid. These results suggest that vanillic acid could stimulate anagen and alleviate hair loss by activating the PI3K/Akt and Wnt/β-catenin pathways in DPCs.

Auranofin Enhances Sulforaphane-Mediated Apoptosis in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Hep3B Cells through Inactivation of the PI3K/Akt Signaling Pathway

The thioredoxin (Trx) system plays critical roles in regulating intracellular redox levels and defending organisms against oxidative stress. Recent studies indicated that Trx reductase (TrxR) was overexpressed in various types of human cancer cells indicating that the Trx-TrxR system may be a potential target for anti-cancer drug development. This study investigated the synergistic effect of auranofin, a TrxR-specific inhibitor, on sulforaphane-mediated apoptotic cell death using Hep3B cells. The results showed that sulforaphane significantly enhanced auranofin-induced apoptosis by inhibiting TrxR activity and cell proliferation compared to either single treatment. The synergistic effect of sulforaphane and auranofin on apoptosis was evidenced by an increased annexin-V-positive cells and Sub-G1 cells. The induction of apoptosis by the combined treatment caused the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) and upregulation of Bax. In addition, the proteolytic activities of caspases (-3, -8, and -9) and the degradation of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase, a substrate protein of activated caspase-3, were also higher in the combined treatment. Moreover, combined treatment induced excessive generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, treatment with N-acetyl-L-cysteine, a ROS scavenger, reduced combined treatment-induced ROS production and apoptosis. Thereby, these results deduce that ROS played a pivotal role in apoptosis induced by auranofin and sulforaphane. Furthermore, apoptosis induced by auranofin and sulforaphane was significantly increased through inhibition of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway. Taken together, the present study demonstrated that down-regulation of TrxR activity contributed to the synergistic effect of auranofin and sulforaphane on apoptosis through ROS production and inhibition of PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.

7,8-Dihydroxyflavone Protects High Glucose-Damaged Neuronal Cells against Oxidative Stress

Oxidative stress is considered a major contributor in the pathogenesis of diabetic neuropathy and in diabetes complications, such as nephropathy and cardiovascular diseases. Diabetic neuropathy, which is the most frequent complications of diabetes, affect sensory, motor, and autonomic nerves. This study aimed to investigate whether 7,8-dihydroxyflavone (7,8-DHF) protects SH-SY5Y neuronal cells against high glucose-induced toxicity. In the current study, we found that diabetic patients exhibited higher lipid peroxidation caused by oxidative stress than healthy subjects. 7,8-DHF exhibits superoxide anion and hydroxyl radical scavenging activities. High glucose-induced toxicity severely damaged SH-SY5Y neuronal cells, causing mitochondrial depolarization; however, 7,8-DHF recovered mitochondrial polarization. Furthermore, 7,8-DHF effectively modulated the expression of pro-apoptotic protein (Bax) and anti-apoptotic protein (Bcl-2) under high glucose, thus inhibiting the activation of caspase signaling pathways. These results indicate that 7,8-DHF has antioxidant effects and protects cells from apoptotic cell death induced by high glucose. Thus, 7,8-DHF may be developed into a promising candidate for the treatment of diabetic neuropathy.

Shikonin Exerts Cytotoxic Effects in Human Colon Cancers by Inducing Apoptotic Cell Death via the Endoplasmic Reticulum and Mitochondria-Mediated Pathways

The apoptotic effects of shikonin (5,8-dihydroxy-2-[(1R)-1-hydroxy-4-methylpent-3-enyl]naphthalene-1,4-dione) on the human colon cancer cell line SNU-407 were investigated in this study. Shikonin showed dose-dependent cytotoxic activity against SNU-407 cells, with an estimated IC50 value of 3 µM after 48 h of treatment. Shikonin induced apoptosis, as evidenced by apoptotic body formation, sub-G1 phase cells, and DNA fragmentation. Shikonin induced apoptotic cell death by activating mitogen-activated protein kinase family members, and the apoptotic process was mediated by the activation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, leading to activation of the PERK/elF2α/CHOP apoptotic pathway, and mitochondrial Ca2+ accumulation. Shikonin increased mitochondrial membrane depolarization and altered the levels of apoptosis-related proteins, with a decrease in B cell lymphoma (Bcl)-2 and an increase in Bcl-2-associated X protein, and subsequently, increased expression of cleaved forms of caspase-9 and -3. Taken together, we suggest that these mechanisms, including MAPK signaling and the ER-and mitochondria-mediated pathways, may underlie shikonin-induced apoptosis related to its anticancer effect.

Esculetin Prevents the Induction of Matrix Metalloproteinase-1 by Hydrogen Peroxide in Skin Keratinocytes

BACKGROUND: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in various cellular diseases. Excessive ROS can cause intracellular oxidative stress, resulting in a calcium imbalance and even aging. In this study, we evaluated the protective effect of esculetin on oxidative stress-induced aging in human HaCaT keratinocytes. METHODS: Human keratinocytes were pretreated with esculetin for 30 minutes and treated with H₂O₂. Then, the protective effects on oxidative stress-induced matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1 were detected by Flou-4-AM staining, reverse transcription-PCR, Western blotting, and quantitative fluorescence assay. RESULTS: Esculetin prevented H₂O₂-induced aging by inhibiting MMP-1 mRNA, protein, and activity levels. In addition, esculetin decreased abnormal levels of phospho-MEK1, phospho-ERK1/2, phospho-SEK1, phospho-JNK1/2, c-Fos, and phospho-c-Jun and inhibited activator protein 1 binding activity. CONCLUSIONS: Esculetin prevented excessive levels of intracellular calcium and reduced the expression levels of aging-related proteins.

Purpurogallin Protects Keratinocytes from Damage and Apoptosis Induced by Ultraviolet B Radiation and Particulate Matter 2.5

Purpurogallin, a natural phenol obtained from oak nutgalls, has been shown to possess antioxidant, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory effects. Recently, in addition to ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation that induces cell apoptosis via oxidative stress, particulate matter 2.5 (PM(2.5)) was shown to trigger excessive production of reactive oxygen species. In this study, we observed that UVB radiation and PM(2.5) severely damaged human HaCaT keratinocytes, disrupting cellular DNA, lipids, and proteins and causing mitochondrial depolarization. Purpurogallin protected HaCaT cells from apoptosis induced by UVB radiation and/or PM(2.5). Furthermore, purpurogallin effectively modulates the pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic proteins under UVB irradiation via caspase signaling pathways. Additionally, purpurogallin reduced apoptosis via MAPK signaling pathways, as demonstrated using MAPK-p38, ERK, and JNK inhibitors. These results indicate that purpurogallin possesses antioxidant effects and protects cells from damage and apoptosis induced by UVB radiation and PM(2.5).

Niacinamide Protects Skin Cells from Oxidative Stress Induced by Particulate Matter

Niacinamide (NIA) is a water-soluble vitamin that is widely used in the treatment of skin diseases. Moreover, NIA displays antioxidant effects and helps repair damaged DNA. Recent studies showed that particulate matter 2.5 (PM(2.5)) induced reactive oxygen species (ROS), causing disruption of DNA, lipids, and protein, mitochondrial depolarization, and apoptosis of skin keratinocytes. Here, we investigated the protective effects of NIA on PM(2.5)-induced oxidative stress in human HaCaT keratinocytes. We found that NIA could inhibit the ROS generation induced by PM(2.5), as well block the PM(2.5)-induced oxidation of molecules, such as lipids, proteins, and DNA. Furthermore, NIA alleviated PM(2.5)-induced accumulation of cellular Ca²⁺, which caused cell membrane depolarization and apoptosis, and reduced the number of apoptotic cells. Collectively, the findings show that NIA can protect keratinocytes from PM(2.5)-induced oxidative stress and cell damage.

Reduced Autophagy in 5-Fluorouracil Resistant Colon Cancer Cells

We investigated the role of autophagy in SNUC5/5-FUR, 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) resistant SNUC5 colon cancer cells. SNUC5/5-FUR cells exhibited low level of autophagy, as determined by light microscopy, confocal microscopy, and flow cytometry following acridine orange staining, and the decreased level of GFP-LC3 puncta. In addition, expression of critical autophagic proteins such as Atg5, Beclin-1 and LC3-II and autophagic flux was diminished in SNUC5/5-FUR cells. Whereas production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was significantly elevated in SNUC5/5-FUR cells, treatment with the ROS inhibitor N-acetyl cysteine further reduced the level of autophagy. Taken together, these results indicate that decreased autophagy is linked to 5-FU resistance in SNUC5 colon cancer cells.

Galangin Activates the ERK/AKT-Driven Nrf2 Signaling Pathway to Increase the Level of Reduced Glutathione in Human Keratinocytes

Previously, we demonstrated that galangin (3,5,7-trihydroxyflavone) protects human keratinocytes against ultraviolet B (UVB)-induced oxidative damage. In this study, we investigated the effect of galangin on induction of antioxidant enzymes involved in synthesis of reduced glutathione (GSH), and investigated the associated upstream signaling cascades. By activating nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor (Nrf2), galangin treatment significantly increased expression of glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit (GCLC) and glutathione synthetase (GSS). This activation of Nrf2 depended on extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERKs) and protein kinase B (AKT) signaling. Inhibition of GSH in galangin-treated cells attenuated the protective effect of galangin against the deleterious effects of UVB. Our results reveal that galangin protects human keratinocytes by activating ERK/AKT-Nrf2, leading to elevated expression of GSH-synthesizing enzymes.

4-O-Methylhonokiol Protects HaCaT Cells from TGF-β1-Induced Cell Cycle Arrest by Regulating Canonical and Non-Canonical Pathways of TGF-β Signaling

4-O-methylhonokiol, a neolignan compound from Magnolia Officinalis, has been reported to have various biological activities including hair growth promoting effect. However, although transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signal pathway has an essential role in the regression induction of hair growth, the effect of 4-O-methylhonokiol on the TGF-β signal pathway has not yet been elucidated. We thus examined the effect of 4-O-methylhonokiol on TGF-β-induced canonical and noncanonical pathways in HaCaT human keratinocytes. When HaCaT cells were pretreated with 4-O-methylhonokiol, TGF-β1-induced G1/G0 phase arrest and TGF-β1-induced p21 expression were decreased. Moreover, 4-O-methylhonokiol inhibited nuclear translocation of Smad2/3, Smad4 and Sp1 in TGF-β1-induced canonical pathway. We observed that ERK phosphorylation by TGF-β1 was significantly attenuated by treatment with 4-O-methylhonokiol. 4-O-methylhonokiol inhibited TGF-β1-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and reduced the increase of NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4) mRNA level in TGF-β1-induced noncanonical pathway. These results indicate that 4-O-methylhonokiol could inhibit TGF-β1-induced cell cycle arrest through inhibition of canonical and noncanonical pathways in human keratinocyte HaCaT cell and that 4-O-methylhonokiol might have protective action on TGF-β1-induced cell cycle arrest.

A Benzylideneacetophenone Derivative Induces Apoptosis of Radiation-Resistant Human Breast Cancer Cells via Oxidative Stress

Benzylideneacetophenone derivative (1E)-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl) hept-1-en-3-one (JC3) elicited cytotoxic effects on MDA-MB 231 human breast cancer cells-radiation resistant cells (MDA-MB 231-RR), in a dose-dependent manner, with an IC₅₀ value of 6 μM JC3. JC3-mediated apoptosis was confirmed by increase in sub-G1 cell population. JC3 disrupted the mitochondrial membrane potential, and reduced expression of anti-apoptotic B cell lymphoma-2 protein, whereas it increased expression of pro-apoptotic Bcl-2-associated X protein, leading to the cleavage of caspase-9, caspase-3 and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase. In addition, JC3 activated mitogen-activated protein kinases, and specific inhibitors of these kinases abrogated the JC3-induced increase in apoptotic bodies. JC3 increased the level of intracellular reactive oxygen species and enhanced oxidative macromolecular damage via lipid peroxidation, protein carbonylation, and DNA strand breakage. Considering these findings, JC3 is an effective therapy against radiation-resistant human breast cancer cells.