Nano Fertilizer in Crop Production: The Changing Scenario

While the world's population is growing exponentially, there is an alarming increase in the need for food, which might reach a record nine billion people by 2050. In order to address the issue of rising food demand, a number of initiatives are being put into place to boost crop output and safeguard them against agricultural pests. The growing population pressures agricultural civilization to develop fresh strategies for boosting crop output. For nations all across the world, the issue of poverty and malnutrition has grown to be of great concern. Progress in the agricultural sector, which provides the raw materials for the food and feed industries, is crucial for both economic development and population expansion. With economic development, the soil nutrient balances are differed. Soil fertility is important in developing countries for assisting the economy and agriculture. There is a high demand in the twenty-first century for efficient, reliable, and cost-effective systems for detecting, supplying, monitoring, and diagnosing biological host molecules and nutrients. Traditional farming methods are incapable of keeping up with the rate at which food needs are increasing, so we must rely on and incorporate nanotechnology in agriculture and related sectors. In modern agriculture, increasing agricultural productivity is impossible without the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides; however, the majority of agrochemicals are not eco-friendly and are thus harmful to human health. Nanotechnology is a novel technique for improved and sustainable agricultural production and also harbours a good capacity to bring novel alterations in the agricultural systems. Nanotechnology introduces new technologies and materials for use in molecular biology for the identification of plant pathogenic microorganisms. By bringing novel methods for distributing nutrients through nano fertilizers, specialized pathogen-targeted treatment, and boosting plant pest-resistance, nanotechnology has the potential to change the agricultural industry. Moreover, it can increase plants' ability to absorb nutrients and to endure environmental stresses. The fertility of the soil is a key factor in helping the economy and agriculture in developing nations. The benefits of strategies using nanotechnology for sustainable agriculture are covered here.

Review on the ecology and taxonomy of sessile rotifers (Rotifera) with special reference to Mexico

Aim: Review of the new research on medium- and large-sized rivers in China and its impact to develop more rational management strategies for medium- and large-sized rivers.Methodology: Papers on rivers-related research in China published over the past 15 years (2004–2018) were summarised through statistical analyses. The main topics, data sources and contributions were also summarised, and representative papers were presented to illustrate milestones and contributions. Results: The management strategies of medium- and large-sized rivers shifted remarkably from traditional agricultural utilisation of floods and water resources to ecological protection. Water resources and pollution, conservancy projects and flooding and droughts were the four most focused research areas. Interpretation: Chinese economy significantly contributed to the change in river management strategies over the last two decades.

Temperature-dependent demographic differences in sessile rotifers of the genus Limnias (Rotifera: Gnesiotrocha)

Aim: Rotifer research on sessile taxa has received less attention because they are not easy to identify in fixed samples. In the Lake Xochimilco, a Ramsar site in Mexico City, three morphotypes of L. ceratophylli and a single morphotype of L. cf. melicerta occur in different densities. The aim of this study was to test if temperature was responsible for the differences in the population densities of these morphotypes. Methodology: The present study was carried out using population growth method consisting of 4 treatments (3 morphotypes of L. ceratophylli and one of L. cf. melicerta) at 20 and 25°C. Experiments were carried out in 50 ml glass jars containing 25 ml synthetic medium with Chlorella vulgaris as food. The population growth rates (r) were derived. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and post-hoc tests were used to quantify the intra-and interspecific differences in the population growth rates. Results: The temperature levels for optimal population growth rates differed among the morphotypes of same species. At 20°C, the morphotype 1 had the highest r (0.23 d-1) similar to that of L. cf. melicerta, while morphotype 3 had the lowest (0.15 d-1). For L. cf. melicerta, the r was higher at 25°C than at 20°C. Of three morphotypes of L. ceratophylli, morphotype 3 had the highest r at 25°C similar to that of L. cf. melicerta at same temperature. Interpretation: There were significant differences among growth patterns within the morphotypes of L. ceratophylli, depending on culture temperature. These trends highlight the relative importance of environmental variables in differentiating morphotypes of a sessile species complex which could explain their possible seasonal changes in the natural waterbodies.

Determination of optimal prey for rearing the Tropical Gar Atractosteus tropicus (Lepisosteiformes: Lepisosteidae) / Determinación de presas óptimas para la crianza del pejelagarto Atractosteus tropicus (Lepisosteiformes: Lepisosteidae)

Abstract Larval feeding studies of both ornamental and consumable fish species are important for formulating successful management, and culture strategies for conservation purposes. In the present study, we evaluated prey selectivity for the tropical gar Atractosteus tropicus in the larval stage (first 8 weeks) using the zooplankton Artemia fransiscana, Daphnia pulex and Moina macrocopa as prey following the hypothesis that prey selection of the fish species is related not only to prey species preferences but to the difference in prey densities present in the environment. Functional responses were tested at prey densities of 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0 and 8.0 ind. mL-1 and analyzed using Manly's α. For prey selectivity, we used the three zooplankton species at three different densities. In these two experiments the fish larvae were allowed to feed for 45 min. To quantify feeding behavior (encounters, attacks, captures, ingestions, rejections) we used a density of 1 ind. mL-1 using each prey species based on 10 minutes of direct observation. Our results showed a functional response Type II for A. tropicus preying mostly on A. franciscana and M. macrocopa. The Manly's α index showed that M. macrocopa and A. franciscana are the most preys selected. The values for encounters for the three prey species were relatively constant during the eight weeks. Encounter values for the cladocerans were low in comparison to A. franciscana; however, high success in capture and ingestion was observed for all prey species used. Our results from the functional response experiments supports the hypothesis that A. tropicus is an active predator presenting a functional response of a carnivorous fish and the shift in prey selection suggests that even at low prey availability, A. tropicus is able to manipulate and feed on zooplankton of wide range in size. Also, according to our results, we suggest the use of a mix of A. franciscana and M. macrocopa to feed A. tropicus in culture systems in concentrations ≈ 2 ind. mL-1 during the first 3 weeks of age and then shift to M. macrocopa from the 4 week. Our results, in conjunction with studies on the survivorship of the juveniles would aid in conservation efforts and improve the production of gars in aquaculture. Rev. Biol. Trop. 66(3): 1018-1033. Epub 2018 September 01.

Resumen Estudios sobre alimentación en etapa larvaria en peces ornamentales como de consumo son importantes para formular estrategias exitosas de manejo y cultivo con fines de conservación. En el presente estudio evaluamos la selectividad de presa del pejelagarto Atractosteus tropicus en etapas larvarias (primeras 8 semanas) utilizando el zooplancton Artemia fransiscana, Daphnia pulex y Moina macrocopa como presas, probando la hipótesis de que la selección de presas en peces está relacionada no solamente a la preferencia por la especie de presa sino también a la diferencia en la densidad de presas en el ambiente. También se probó la respuesta funcional con densidades de presa de 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0 y 8.0 ind. mL-1. Para la selección de presa, utilizamos las tres especies de zooplancton en tres densidades diferentes. En ambos experimentos, las larvas de los peces se alimentaron por 45 min. Para cuantificar el comportamiento alimenticio (encuentros, ataques, capturas, ingestiones y rechazos), se usó una densidad de 1 ind. mL-1utilizando cada especie de presa mediante observación directa por 10 minutos. Nuestros resultados muestran que A. tropicus presenta una respuesta funcional Tipo II, depredando principalmente A. franciscana y M. macrocopa. El índice α de Manly mostró que las especies M. macrocopa and A. franciscana fueron las mayormente seleccionadas. Los valores de encuentros para las tres especies de presa fueron relativamente constantes a lo largo de las ocho semanas. Los valores de ataque, captura e ingestión para los cladóceros fueron bajos; sin embargo, se observó gran éxito en la captura e ingestión para todas las especias de presa utilizadas. Nuestros resultados sobre los experimentos de respuesta funcional soportan la hipótesis de que A. tropicus es un depredador activo y presenta una respuesta funcional relacionada con especies de peces carnívoras y que el cambio en la selección de presas sugiere que aún a bajas densidades y disponibilidad de presas, A. tropicus es capaz de manipular y alimentarse de presas de diferentes tamaños. También, sugerimos el uso de una mezcla de A. franciscana y M. macrocopa para alimentar a A. tropicus en sistemas de cultivo en concentraciones ≈ 2 ind. mL-1 durante las primeras tres semanas de edad y después cambiar a M. macrocopa a partir de la cuarta semana. Nuestros resultados, junto con estudios de sobrevivencia de los juveniles pueden ayudar a generar esfuerzos de conservación y mejorar la producción de pejelagarto en acuicultura.

Demography of zooplankton (Anuraeopsis fissa, Brachionus rubens and Moina macrocopa) fed Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus acutus cultured on different media

Generally zooplankton growth is often limited by the quality of their algal diet. A cheaper common practice in aquaculture, is to culture algae with fertilizers; however, the demography of zooplankton when fed these algae has not yet been evaluated. We studied the population growth and life table demography of the rotifers Anuraeopsis fissa and Brachionus rubens, and the cladoceran Moina macrocopa. For this, the algae Scenedesmus acutus or Chlorella vulgaris were cultured on defined (Bold’s basal) medium or the commercial liquid fertilizer (Bayfolan). Experiments were conducted at one algal concentration 1.0x10(6)cells/mL of C. vulgaris or its equivalent dry weight of 0.5x10(6)cells/mL of S. acutus. The population dynamics were tested at 23±1ºC in 100mL transparent jars, each with 50mL of the test medium, with an initial density of 0.5indiv/mL, for a total of 48 test jars (3 zooplankton 2 algal species x 2 culture media x 4 replicates). For the life table experiments with M. macrocopa, we introduced 10 neonates (<24h old) into each test jar containing the specific algal type and concentration. For the rotifer experiments, we set 5mL tubes with one neonate each and 10 replicates for each algal species and culture medium. We found that the average rotifer life span was not influenced by the diet, but for M. macrocopa fed S. acutus cultured in Bold’s medium, the average lifespan was significantly lower than with the other diets. The gross and net reproductive rates of A. fissa (ranging from 18-36 offspring per female) were significantly higher for C. vulgaris cultured in Bold medium. Regardless of the culture medium, Chlorella resulted in significantly higher gross and net reproductive rates for B. rubens than S. acutus diets. The reproductive rates of M. macrocopa were significantly higher in all the tested diets except when fed with S. acutus in Bold medium. The population increase rate, derived from growth experiments of A. fissa and B. rubens, ranged from 0.1-0.25/d and were significantly higher on C. vulgaris cultured in liquid fertilizer as compared to the other diets. The growth rates of M. macrocopa ranged from 0.1 to 0.38/d, and were highest with diets of C. vulgaris cultured in Bold medium and S. acutus cultured in fertilizer. Thus, regardless of the culture medium used, the growth rates of the evaluated zooplankton species were higher with Chlorella than with Scenedesmus. The peak population density was highest (2 800ind/mL) for A. fissa fed Chlorella that was cultured on liquid fertilizers, while B. rubens and M. macrocopa had peak abundances of 480 and 12ind/mL, respectively under similar conditions.

Generalmente el crecimiento del zooplancton está a menudo limitado por la calidad de su dieta de algas. La demografía del zooplancton durante la alimentación con algas no ha sido estudiada, a pesar de que el cultivo de algas con fertilizantes es una práctica económica común en acuacultura. Se analizó la demografía de Anuraeopsis fissa y Brachionus rubens (rotíferos) y Moina macrocopa (cladóceros), alimentados con las algas verdes Scenedesmus acutus o Chlorella vulgaris cultivadas en medio Bold o fertilizante líquido comercial (Bayfolan, de Bayer). En los rotíferos no se observaron diferencias significativas en el promedio de vida, sin embargo, este parámetro en M. macrocopa con S. acutus cultivada en Medio Bold, fue significativamente menor que en otras dietas. Las tasas de reproducción bruta y neta de A. fissa fueron significativamente mayores con C. vulgaris cultivada en medio Bold, que con el fertilizante; estas tasas en B. rubens, independientemente del medio de cultivo, resultaron significativamente mayores con Chlorella que S. acutus. La tasa de reproducción de M. macrocopa fue significativamente mayor en todas, a excepción de S. acutus en Bold. En el crecimiento poblacional con A. fissa y B. rubens la tasa de crecimiento poblacional varió de 0.1 hasta 0.25/d, significativamente mayores en C. vulgaris cultivadas con fertilizante, en comparación con las otras dietas; en M. macrocopa la tasa de crecimiento varió desde 0.1 hasta 0.38/d, las más altas fueron: con C. vulgaris cultivadas en medio Bold y S. acutus cultivadas con fertilizante. Así, en todas las especies, la tasa de crecimiento fue más alta con Chlorella que con Scenedesmus.

Mosquito biting activity on humans & detection of Plasmodium falciparum infection in Anopheles stephensi in Goa, India.

Background & objectives: Knowledge of the bionomics of mosquitoes, especially of disease vectors, is essential to plan appropriate vector avoidance and control strategies. Information on biting activity of vectors during the night hours in different seasons is important for choosing personal protection measures. This study was carried out to find out the composition of mosquito fauna biting on humans and seasonal biting trends in Goa, India. Methods: Biting activities of all mosquitoes including vectors were studied from 1800 to 0600 h during 85 nights using human volunteers in 14 different localities of three distinct ecotypes in Goa. Seasonal biting trends of vector species were analysed and compared. Seasonal biting periodicity during different phases of night was also studied using William’s mean. Results: A total of 4,191 mosquitoes of five genera and 23 species were collected. Ten species belonged to Anopheles, eight to Culex, three to Aedes and one each to Mansonia and Armigeres. Eleven vector species had human hosts, including malaria vectors Anopheles stephensi (1.3%), An. fluviatilis (1.8%), and An. culicifacies (0.76%); filariasis vectors Culex quinquefasciatus (40.8%) and Mansonia uniformis (1.8%); Japanese encephalitis vectors Cx. tritaeniorhynchus (17.4%), Cx. vishnui (7.7%), Cx. pseudovishnui (0.1%), and Cx. gelidus (2.4%); and dengue and chikungunya vectors Aedes albopictus (0.9%) and Ae. aegypti (0.6%). Two An. stephensi of the total 831 female anophelines, were found positive for P. falciparum sporozoites. The entomological inoculation rate (EIR) of P. falciparum was 18.1 and 2.35 for Panaji city and Goa, respectively. Interpretation & conclusions: Most of the mosquito vector species were collected in all seasons and throughout the scotophase. Biting rates of different vector species differed during different phases of night and seasons. Personal protection methods could be used to stop vector-host contact.

Studies on comparative population growth of some species of the rotifer Lecane (Rotifera).

We compared the population growth patterns of 5 species of the rotifer genus Lecane [(L. quadridentata (Ehrenberg, 1830), L. cornuta (Muller, 1786), L. papuana (Murray, 1913), L. unguitata (Fadeev, 1925) and L. pyriformis (Daday, 1905)] ranging in adult average body size from 30 to 140 Lm. All species were cultured under laboratory conditions for 25-30 days using the green alga Scenedesmus acutus as the exclusive diet, at a density of 1.0 X 106 cells ml-1 at 24oC. Regardless of the species, lecanids reached their peak population densities after 4 weeks. Peak population densities ranged from 15 to 320 ind. ml-1, depending on body size. There was an inverse curvilinear relation between body lengths and peak population abundances (densities) of the Lecane species. Egg ratios (eggs per female) for the tested species were <0.6 during the exponential phase but declined to 0.1 (or lower) as the population density increased. The rates of population increase for the lecanids were in general lower (0.10 to 0.21 day-1) than other well-studied rotifer species including members of Brachionidae.

Elaphoidella grandidieri (Harpacticoida: Copepoda): Demographic characteristics and possible use as live prey in aquaculture.

In freshwater ecosystems, rotifers and cladocerans are ideal prey for fish larvae whereas copepods, due to their purported low growth rate and predatory tendency, are not. We recently isolated the parthenogenetic Elaphoidella grandidieri (Guerne et Richard, 1893) a benthic freshwater harpacticoid, from a fish farm in the State of Morelos, central Mexico and tested its potential as a live prey organism for larval vertebrates. Population growth and life table demography experiments were conducted, in 100 ml recipients with 50 ml of test medium on a diet of Scenedesmus acutus at a density of 1.0 X 106cell ml-1; the former on live algae alone while the latter on live algae as well as detritus. We also conducted experiments to document the prey preference for this copepod by the larval Ameca splendens (Pisces: Goodeidae) and Ambystoma mexicanum (Amphibia: Ambystomatidae), fed the rotifer Plationus patulus, the ostracod Heterocypris incongruens, and the cladocerans Moina macrocopa and Daphnia pulex. Elaphoidella grandidieri is relatively easy to maintain under laboratory conditions, reaching densities (copepodites and adults) of more than 10,000 l-1. The generation time ranged between 30-45 days, depending on the diet. The net reproductive rate was as high as 60 nauplii female -1 day -1. Population growth rates ranged between 0.03 and 0.11 d-1, live algae being the superior diet compared to detritus. Both predators showed no preference for E. grandidieri, but in the absence of alternate prey they consumed 80% of the harpacticoids offered. The data have been discussed in relation to the potential of E. grandidieri as live food for aquaculture.

Somatic and population growth responses of Ceriodaphnia dubia and Daphnia pulex (Cladocera) to changes in food (Chlorella vulgaris) level and temperature.

We quantified the combined effects of three food levels (0.01 X106, 0.1 X106 and 1.0X106 cells ml-1) and three temperature levels (15, 20 and 25oC) on the somatic and the clonal population growth of two cladocerans Ceriodaphnia dubia and Daphnia pulex for 24 to 42 days. The somatic growth data showed that both the cladoceran species began to increase their body size within 3 days and remained stable beyond a week. Food density had a significant effect on the body size of C. dubia while for D. pulex, food level and temperature as well as their interaction had significant effect on the body size. The population growth of both the cladoceran species was affected by temperature. At 15oC, C. dubia showed little growth at the highest food density, while at low food level, there was some increase in the population abundances, especially after a long lag phase of about 2 weeks. At 15oC and under the lowest tested food level, the population of D. pulex did not increase beyond the inoculation density. Optimal population growth of D. pulex was observed at intermediate temperature and at 1.0X106 cells ml-1 of food level while for C. dubia 25oC and the highest food level yielded highest growth. At low food level and low temperature, the rate of population increase (r) of C. dubia was much lower than that of D. pulex at comparable conditions. On the hand, at higher food levels and temperature regimes, the r of D. pulex was much higher than that of C.dubia. Regardless of the food levels and temperature, the r of C. dubia varied from 0.03 to 0.07 while that of D. pulex varied from 0.01 to 0.08 day-1.

Seasonal variations in zooplankton abundances in the Iturbide reservoir (Isidro Fabela, State of Mexico, Mexico).

This study was undertaken to quantify the seasonal variations of zooplankton (rotifers, cladocerans and copepods) and selected physico-chemical variables (temperature, pH, conductivity, Secchi disc transparency, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, nitrate and phosphate concentrations) in the Iturbide dam. Monthly zooplankton samples (50 l filtered through 50 9m mesh, in duplicates from each of the 4 stations) were collected from February 2008 to January 2009. Simultaneously physico-chemical variables were measured. The zooplankton samples were fixed in 4% formalin in the field. In general, the temperature ranged from 9 to 16oC, rarely exceeding 20oC. Secchi transparency was nearly 100% since the reservoir was shallow (<2 m) even during the rainy seasons. Dissolved oxygen was generally high, 13-18 mg l-1. Nitrate levels (10 to 170 9g l-1) were low while phosphates were relatively high (9 to 35 9g l-1). The Iturbide reservoir was dominated by rotifer species. We encountered in all, 55 taxa of rotifers, 9 cladocerans and 2 copepods. The rotifer families Trichocercidae and Notommatidae had the highest number of species (7 each) followed by Colurellidae and Lecanidae (6 and 5 species, respectively). Trichocerca elongata, Ascomorpha ovalis, K. americana, K. cochlearis, Lepadella patella and Pompholyx sulcata were the dominant rotifers during the study period. On an annual average, rotifer density ranged between 50-200 ind. l-1. Among crustaceans Chydorus brevilabris and Macrothrix triserialis were most abundant. The maximal density of these cladocerans was about 50 ind. l-1. Copepods were much lower in numbers (<20 ind. l-1). In general the density of zooplankton was higher during summer months (April to July) than during winter. Shannon-Wiener diversity index varied from 1.0 to 4.3 depending on the site and the sampling period. Based on the data of Secchi transparency and nutrient concentrations, the Iturbide reservoir appeared to be mesotrophic.

Prey selectivity and functional response by larval red-eyed tetra Moenkhausia sanctaefilomenae (Steindachner, 1907) (Characiformes: Characidae)

Studies were carried out to quantify the functional response and prey selectivity of larval (1-5 weeks old) of Moenkhausia sanctaefilomenae, a widely cultured ornamental fish, using four rotifers (Brachionus calyciflorus, B. havanaensis, B. patulus and B. rubens) as prey. Regardless of larval age, B. havanaensis was not selected, while B. rubens and B. calyciflorus were preferred. B. patulus was selected only after three weeks. When fed B. calyciflorus, the larvae showed increased prey consumption with increasing age, but remained as plateau around 80 prey individuals. M. sanctaefilomenae consumed much lower individuals of both B. havanaensis and B. patulus, while B. rubens was consumed in higher numbers starting from the first week (about 35 ind. larva-1 45 min.-1). Thus, the maximum number of individuals of each Brachionus species consumed by the larval M. sanctaefilomenae showed significant (p<0.05) differences among the prey types.

Seasonal changes in the rotifer (Rotifera) diversity from a tropical high altitude reservoir (Valle de Bravo, Mexico).

We studied the zooplankton community composition at different depths (2, 4, 8, 12 and 20 m) of Valle de Bravo, a drinking water reservoir in central Mexico during December 2005 to November 2006.Temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH and chlorophyll a were measured simultaneously. While physicochemical values were similar to those found in previous studies, total zooplankton abundance was higher (mean 847 ind. l-1), doubling the mean abundance found in the previous year. Nevertheless, Zooplankton remained dominated by the rotifer genera Keratella, Polyarthra and Trichocerca, which constituted nearly 80% of the total numerical abundances. We encountered 23 rotifer species of which 5 of them (Lepadella rhomboides, Cephalodella catellina, Trichocerca elongata, T. porcellus and Dicranophorus forcipatus) were recorded for the first time from this reservoir. Shannon Wiener diversity index showed that the annual mean species diversity index was similar at depths of 2, 4 and 8 m, but were reduced at 12 and 20 m. Regardless of depth, the highest diversity value of 1.82 was observed during January, while the lowest (0.07) during March. Principal component analysis showed that temperature, dissolved oxygen, water column depth and chlorophyll a have combined effects on the abundance of dominant rotifer species. The highest rotifer density was observed in April (>1600 individuals l-1), while the lowest was recorded during January (<50 ind. l-1). During the study period, the most abundant rotifer species were Keratella chochlearis, Polyarthra vulgaris, Trichocecra elongata and Anuraeopsis fissa.

Two-rooted mandibular second premolars: case report and survey.

Mandibular premolars have earned the reputation for having an aberrant anatomy. Literature is replete with reports of extra canals in mandibular second premolars, but reports about the incidence of extra roots in these teeth are quite rare. This paper attempts at explaining a rare case of successful endodontic management of a two-rooted mandibular second premolar with diagnostic, inter-operative and postoperative radiographic records along with a substantial data on the incidence of extra roots in these teeth. The standard method of radiographic appraisal was maintained as the criteria for determining the presence of extra roots. Totally, 600 patients were examined for a period of four months by three endodontists. Out of them, eight patients had an extra root in one of the mandibular second premolars and three patients showed a bilateral presence of two roots.

Life table demography of Ceriodaphnia dubia (Cladocera) exposed to copper at different levels and periods.

We studied the demographic responses of Ceriodaphnia dubia exposed to copper at 3 different levels (0.1, 0.2 and 0.4 mg l(-1)) and at 4 exposure periods (3, 6, 12 and 24 hr) in addition to controls (without the heavy metal). The tested levels of Cu concentration and the chosen periods of exposure affected some demographic variables (average lifespan, gross and net reproductive rates and generation time). Depending on the heavy metal concentration and the period of exposure, the average lifespan of C. dubia varied from 18 to 24 day Net reproductive rates (NRR) ranged from 50 to 80 offspring per female per lifespan, while the rate of population increase (r) varied from 0.30 to 0.34 per day Though gross reproductive rates (especially at low and intermediate copper levels and shorter duration of exposure) showed significantly higher values than controls, both NRR and r were either unaffected or decreased. It is therefore necessary to regulate the release of untreated industrial effluents containing copper into freshwater ecosystems. Our study thus highlights the importance of including, not only toxicant concentrations but also exposure time, in ecotoxicological evaluations.

Bilateral mandibular canines with type two canals.

Presence of two canals with type II pattern in mandibular canine is around 15%. Even though the incidence rate is high, multiple angled diagnostic radiographs are not regularly taken. This article highlights the importance of multiple angled radiographs and indicates that the dentist should have a mind set to look out for extra canals in all root canal cases.

Combined effect of concentrations of algal food (Chlorella vulgaris) and salt (sodium chloride) on the population growth of Brachionus calyciflorus and Brachionus patulus (Rotifera)

Salinity is an important variable influencing the density and diversity of rotifers. Studies on salt tolerance of rotifers have so far concentrated on euryhaline species while very little information is available on non-euryhaline taxa. In the present work, we have evaluated the combined effects of Chlorella vulgaris and sodium chloride on the population growth of two freshwater rotifers B. calyciflorus and B. patulus. A 24 hr acute tolerance test using NaCl revealed that B. calyciflorus was more resistant (LC50 = 3.75 +/- 0.04 g l-1) than B. patulus (2.14 +/- 0.09 g l-1). The maximal population density (mean +/- standard error) for B. calyciflorus in the control at 4.5 x 10(6) cells ml-1 (algal level) was 80 +/- 5 ind. ml-1, which was nearly a fifth of the one for B. patulus (397 +/- 7 ind. ml-1) under comparable conditions. Data on population growth revealed that regardless of salt concentration, the density of B. calyciflorus increased with increasing food levels, while for B. patulus, this trend was evident only in the controls. Regardless of salt concentration and algal food level, the day of maximal population density was lower (4 +/- 0.5 days) for B. calyciflorus than for B. patulus (11 +/- 1 day). The highest rates of population increase (r values) for B. calyciflorus and B. patulus were 0.429 +/- 0.012 and 0.367 +/- 0.004, respectively, recorded at 4.5 x 10(6) cells ml-1 of Chlorella in the controls. The protective role of algae in reducing the effect of salt stress was more evident in B. calyciflorus than B. patulus.

Effect of different densities of live and dead Chlorella vulgaris on the population growth of rotifers Brachionus calyciflorus and Brachionus patulus (Rotifera)

In order to maintain rotifer populations during periods of low algal production, it is necessary to offer alternate diets, some of which include forms of preserved algae. The present work is based on the effect of live and dead Chlorella vulgaris on the population growth of Brachionus calyciflorus and Brachionus patulus. The experimental design consisted of three algal levels (0.5 x 10(6), 1.5 x 10(6) and 4.5 x 10(6) cells ml-1) offered in three forms (living, frozen and heat-killed). The maximal population density values for B. calyciflorus ranged from 55 +/- 1 ind. ml-1 (at 0.5 x 10(6) cells ml-1) to 471 +/- 72 ind. ml-1 (at 4.5 x 10(6) cells ml-1) with live Chlorella, but was much lower (6 +/- 1 to 26 +/- 6 ind. ml-1) with frozen or heat-killed alga under comparable food levels. However, the maximum population density of B. patulus under live or or heat-killed Chlorella was similar at comparable algal levels but when offered frozen algae it was four times less. The highest mean peak population density was 1,277 +/- 83 ind. ml-1 under 4.5 x 10(6) cells ml-1. The rate of population increase for B. calyciflorus varied from 0.50 to 0.79 using live Chlorella, but under comparable conditions, this range was lower (0.21 to 0.31) for B. patulus. Results have been discussed in light of possible application for aquaculture.

Effect of three food types on the population growth of Brachionus calyciflorus and Brachionus patulus (Rotifera: Brachionidae)

We compared the population growth of B. calyciflorus and B. patulus using the green alga Chlorella vulgaris, baker's yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae or their mixture in equal proportions as food. Food was offered once every 24 h in two concentrations (low: 1 x 10(6) and high: 3 x 10(6) cells ml-1) separately for each species. The experiments were terminated after 15 days. In general, at any food type or concentration, B. patulus reached a higher population density. A diet of Chlorella alone supported a higher population growth of both rotifer species than yeast alone. B. calyciflorus and B. patulus achieved highest population densities (103 +/- 8 ind. ml-1 and 296 +/- 20 ind. ml-1, respectively) on a diet of Chlorella at 3 x 10(6) cells ml-1. When cultured using the mixture of Chlorella and yeast, the maximal population densities of B. calyciflorus were lower than those grown on Chlorella. Under similar conditions, the maximal abundance values of B. patulus were comparable in both food types. Regardless of food type and density the rate of population increase per day (r) for B. calyciflorus varied from 0.13 +/- 0.03 to 0.63 +/- 0.04. These values for B. patulus ranged from 0.19 +/- 0.01 to 0.37 +/- 0.01. The results indicated that even though Chlorella was a superior food for the tested rotifers, yeast can be effectively used at low concentrations to supplement algal requirements in rotifer culture systems.