O estudo do comportamento, a dicotomia inato vs. aprendido e sua (possível) superação / Behavior studies, the nature vs. nurture dichotomy and its (possible) overcoming / El estudio del comportamiento, la dicotomía innato vs. aprendido y su (posible) superación / Les études du comportement, la dichotomie inné vs. appris et son (possible) dépassement

Resumo: O debate inato vs. aprendido continua presente na Academia, bem como na sociedade. Considerando tal cenário, este artigo apresenta o desdobrar das discussões que giram em torno das influências ambientais e genéticas, na gênese dos comportamentos. Para isso, primeiramente é apresentada uma reflexão acerca da definição de comportamento com a finalidade de apresentar o objeto da discussão, bem como a imprecisão em sua caracterização. Posteriormente, são destacadas as principais diferenças entre o pensamento behaviorista e o etológico, e em como essas diferenças impactaram a condução de pesquisas, além de sustentar discursos eugenistas e/ou discriminatórios. Por último, disserta-se sobre uma abordagem não-dicotômica ao tema, na forma dos Sistemas em Desenvolvimento, como uma proposta de superação do debate em questão.

Abstract: Given the remaining prominence of nature vs. nurture debate in academia and society, this article discusses environmental and genetic influences on the genesis of behavior. For this purpose, we first present the definition of behavior and discuss the imprecision in its characterization. Next, we examine the main differences between behaviorist and ethological thinking and their impact on research and on the support of eugenic discourses. To conclude, the article discusses a non-dichotomous approach to behavior based on the Developmental Systems Theory framework to overcome such dualism.

Resumen: El debate innato vs. aprendido permanece presente tanto en la academia como en la sociedad. Considerando este escenario, este artículo presenta el desarrollo de discusiones que giran en torno a las influencias ambientales y genéticas en la génesis del comportamiento. Para ello, en primer lugar, se presenta una reflexión sobre la definición de comportamiento con el fin de presentar el objeto de discusión, así como la imprecisión en su caracterización. Posteriormente, se destacan las principales diferencias entre el pensamiento behaviorista y el etológico, y su impacto en la realización de algunas investigaciones, además de fundamentarse en los discursos eugenésicos y/o discriminatorios. Para finalizar, este artículo discute un enfoque no dicotómico del tema, en la modalidad de Sistemas en Desarrollo, como propuesta para superar el debate en cuestión.

Résumé : Le débat inné vs. savant reste toujours présent dans l'Académie ainsi que dans la société. Au vu ce scénario, cet article discute des influences environnementales et génétiques sur la genèse du comportement. Pour ce faire, on reflète sur la définition du comportement et les imprécisions dans sa caractérisation pour ensuite explorer les principales différences entre la pensée béhavioriste et éthologique et leur impact sur certaines recherches et sur le soutien des discours eugéniques. L'article conclu par présentant une approche non dichotomique fondée sur la Developmental Systems Theory pour surmonter le débat en question.

Infants' Characteristics and Skills: Dissolving the Nature/Nurture Dichotomy / Características e Competências dos Bebês: Rompendo a Dicotomia Inato/Aprendido / Características y Habilidades de los Bebés: Rompendo la Dicotomía Innato /Aprendido

Abstract According to an emergent group of researchers, systemic, relational and evolutionary thought is needed to understand the development of organisms' characteristics and competences. In this paper, we first introduce the prevalent view on the biological basis of behavior, based on the New Synthesis of Modern Biology. Next, we present the critical view of those who defend Extended Evolutionary Synthesis. The existing debate between the different perspectives is illustrated by studies on infants' sensorial capacities, attachment, and neonatal imitation. Possible interpretations, based on the theoretical approaches presented, lead to a reflection on the innate/acquired dichotomy: from the prevailing view, this dichotomy is overcome because the interaction between the innate and the acquired is being considered to explain the characteristics of living beings. A further reflection on the developmental processes involved in the emergence of behavior, on the concepts of what is learning and what is innate leads to the dissolution of this dichotomy.

Resumo Uma corrente emergente de pesquisadores vem defendendo que a compreensão sobre o desenvolvimento das características e competências dos organismos passa pela adoção de um pensamento sistêmico, relacional e também evolucionista. Com o objetivo de apresentar este pensamento, inicialmente discutimos a visão prevalente sobre as bases biológicas do comportamento, que se baseia na Nova Síntese da Biologia Moderna, e, a seguir, expomos a crítica colocada pelos defensores da Síntese Estendida da Evolução. Os debates entre as abordagens serão exemplificados por meio da apresentação de pesquisas sobre as capacidades sensoriais e estabelecimento de vínculo do bebê e a imitação neonatal. As interpretações possíveis, baseadas nas abordagens teóricas apresentadas, desembocam em uma reflexão sobre a dicotomia inato/adquirido: pela visão prevalente, esta dicotomia está superada porque a interação entre o inato e o adquirido vem sendo considerada para explicar as características dos seres vivos. Uma reflexão aprofundada sobre os processos de desenvolvimento envolvidos na emergência do comportamento ressignifica, no entanto, os conceitos de inato e aprendido, levando à dissolução desta dicotomia.

Resumen Una corriente emergente de investigadores viene defendiendo que la comprensión del desarrollo de los carácter y competencias de los organismos implica la adopción de un enfoque sistémico, relacional y evolucionista. Con el fin de presentar este argumento, en principio discutiremos la visión predominante sobre las bases biológicas del comportamiento, soportada en la Nueva Síntesis de la Biología Moderna y, a continuación, expondremos la crítica propuesta por los partidarios de la Síntesis Evolutiva Extendida. El debate entre los enfoques será ejemplificado a través de la presentación de investigaciones sobre capacidades sensoriales, el establecimiento del apego e imitación neonatal. Las posibles interpretaciones desde cada uno de los enfoques teóricos presentados desembocaran en una reflexión sobre la dicotomía innato/ adquirido: el punto de vista predominante sostiene que esta dicotomía se supera cuando se consideran las interacciones innato-adquirido. Una reflexión profunda sobre los procesos de desarrollo, involucrados en la emergencia del comportamiento, conduce a la disolución de la dicotomia innato-aprendido.

Factores socioambientales en el neurodesarrollo de trillizos prematuros. Reporte de un caso / Social and environmental factors of premature triplets' neurodevelopment. Case report

Resumen La epidemia de nacimientos prematuros es fruto de la compleja interacción entre los factores genéticos, sociales y ambientales. Gracias a los avances tecnológicos, la supervivencia de prematuros de menor edad y peso se ha incrementado, así como el riesgo de las secuelas que ello puede provocar. Este trabajo busca caracterizar los factores ambientales y sociales que pueden afectar el neurodesarrollo; el análisis se realizó en un modelo de intervención temprana en el Instituto Nacional de Pediatría (INP). Se presenta el reporte de un caso de embarazo múltiple asistido donde los factores genéticos y ambientales fueron similares, con diferencias en los factores biológicos, así como la interacción de la díada y su evolución en el neurodesarrollo durante el primer año de vida.

Abstract The premature birth epidemic is the result of genetic, social and environmental complex interactions. As smaller and lower-weight children survive, sequelae increase. This paper characterizes the environmental and social factors related to neurodevelopment as a component of an early intervention program at the National Pediatrics Institute. We present the case report of an assisted multiple pregnancy with similar genetic and environmental factors, but biologic and dyadic interaction differences, and report the neurodevelopmental evolution over the first year of life.

Ontogeny and Evolution Through the Lens of the Developmental Systems Theory (DST) / La ontogenia y la evolución desde la perspectiva de la teoría de los sistemas de desarrollo (tsd)

RESUMEN La teoría de los sistemas de desarrollo (TSD) pretende realizar una síntesis conceptual que vincule el desarrollo ontogenético con la evolución. Sus antecedentes pueden ser encontrados básicamente en los trabajos de Waddington y de Bertalanffy quienes aportaron las bases de la canalización del desarrollo y la teoría de sistemas biológicos, respectivamente. El objetivo de este artículo es realizar un análisis conceptual preliminar de la TSD y reflexionar acerca de los aportes potenciales de la TSD como marco teórico para la biología del desarrollo en particular y la biología evolutiva en general. Para ello, se tendrán en cuenta algunos de los conceptos y propuestas que componen este marco y se trabajará sobre datos secundarios obtenidos de la bibliografía. Se concluye que la TSD: 1-logra argumentar en contra de la visión gen-centrista respecto de las explicaciones que pretenden justificar el desarrollo biológico y evolutivo; 2- argumenta de manera coherente a favor del rol de la epigenética en la ontogenia y la evolución; 3- en relación con lo anterior el rol de la selección natural se restringe a un segundo plano; 4- propone que la dicotomía naturaleza/cultura debe ser superada; y 5- constituye un posible programa de investigación metodológico compuesto de una diversidad de hipótesis y teorías no necesariamente relacionadas que pueden ser corroboradas de manera relativamente independientes del resto de la red teórica.

ABSTRACT The Developmental Systems Theory (DST) intends to make a conceptual summary that links ontogenic development to evolution. This theory's background may be found in the works of Waddington and Bertalanffy, who provided the foundations for the canalization of development and the biological systems theory, respectively. The aim of this work is to make a preliminary conceptual analysis of DST as a theoretical framework for developmental biology in particular and for evolutionary biology in general. For that purpose, we will take into account some of the concepts and proposals that constitute this framework, and we will work with secondary data obtained from the bibliography. We conclude that: 1. DST is able to argue against the gene centrist vision about the explanations that try to justify biological and evolutionary development; 2. DST argues coherently in favor of the role of Epigenetics in ontogeny and evolution; 3. In connection to that, the role of natural selection is restricted to a secondary plane; 4. DST proposes that the nature/ nurture dichotomy must be overcome; and 5. DST constitutes a possible methodological research program composed of a series of not necessarily related hypothesis, theories, and methods that may be confirmed in a relatively independent manner from the rest of the theoretical network.

Development and management of talents with high potentials / 中华医院管理杂志

The paper described the nature of talents with high potentials as a source of leaders,highlighting their features of uncertainty,relativity and opportunity.Authors presented their insights and experiences in developing such talents into leaders of the hospital,and hold that nurturing of such talents calls for systematic emphasis,competence models to identify them,building an environment for them to stand out,and building of an appraisal and incentive mechanism that is scientific and efficient.

O que se traz para a vida e o que a vida nos traz: uma análise da equação etiológica proposta por Freud à luz das neurociências / What we bring to life and what life brings to us: an analysis of the ethiological equation proposed by Freud according to neurosciences

O presente trabalho tem como objetivo discutir aspectos teóricos, clínicos e experimentais acerca da interação entre variáveis inatas e aprendidas com relação à origem e desenvolvimento de distúrbios emocionais. Apresenta-se inicialmente a equação etiológica proposta por Freud acerca das neuroses na virada do século XX e sua relação com a teoria da sedução. Apresentam-se também algumas evidências clínicas e experimentais que dão suporte à noção de equação etiológica. Estas evidências demonstram a importância de determinantes genéticos que regulam a atividade serotonérgica assim como a influência de eventos traumáticos que ocorrem dentro e fora do período crítico. A influência do ambiente, como por exemplo, o apoio social, pode também aliviar a expressão destes distúrbios emocionais. O trabalho busca também modelar matematicamente a equação etiológica através de uma regressão logística incorporando todos estes parâmetros.

The aim of this paper is to discuss theoretical issues as well as clinical and experimental evidences regarding the nature versus nurture debate of the origins and development of emotional disturbances. The etiological equation as proposed by Freud at the turn of the 20th century is presented. Clinical and experimental evidences, which support the notion of the etiological equation, are also presented. These evidences indicate the importance of the genetic makeup that regulates serotonergic activity as well as traumatic experiences that occur inside or outside the critical period. Environmental interactions, such as social support, can also relieve the expression of emotional dysfunction. A mathematical model of the etiological equation is presented through a logistic regression in which all these parameters are incorporated.

Crianza y esquizofrenia

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Abstract: Introduction. Schizophrenia is a chronic psychotic disorder whose prevalence in adults is from 0.5 to 1.5%, and its annual incidence ranks from 0.5 to 5 by each 10,000 inhabitants. Antipsychotic medications have shown to be effective in the treatment of acute psychosis and the prevention of relapse for persons suffering form schizophrenia. However, most of them have not shown to be able to correct fully the alterations in social and labor adjustment. Several studies -refering to the most important advances of the last years regarding this pathology, emphasize the necessity to know which are the psycho-social factors that participate in schizophrenia in order to prevent psychotic relapses and re-hospitalization. Approaches tending to find out the influence of the familiar surroundings have been limited by methodological matters. Although it is certain that attachment has been studied to understand the influence of the raising, in the evolutionary process of the personality and of some mental disorders, little is known about the early parental relations of the schizophrenic. Objectives. 1. To compare the description of the raising made by the schizophrenic patients in remission, with that made by healthy subjects with similar sociodemographic characteristics; 2. To compare the pattern of raising described by the hospitalized schizophrenic patient while presenting acute manifestations of psychosis, with that described once that such manifestations have been controlled; 3. To determine the relation and participation of the dimensions of the raising in regard to schizophrenia and its evolution. Methodology. An explanatory nonexperimental transeccional correlacional causal study was made. The sample was formed by the 23 schizophrenic patients hospitalized in the Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría during the second semester of 2003, and by a control group formed by 50 healthy subjects with similar socio-demographic characteristics. The schizophrenic patients were evaluated through a clinical history and the application of The Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) and The Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI)(formed by two dimensions: 1. warmth; 2. distance and emotional coldness). These instruments were applied within the first five later days to their hospitalization and within the five previous days to their discharge by improvement. The control group was evaluated only on one occasion. A brief interview was made to collect some sociodemographic data and The Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) was applied. Results. In order to determine the existing differences in the perception of the paternal and maternal raising between the group of schizophrenic patients in remission and the control group, a t test for independent samples was made. As established in the first hypothesis, significant differences in both groups were found, but only in the dimension paternal of distance and emotional coldness (p = .03) and maternal distance and emotional coldness (p = .000). With the purpose of determining the differences in the perception of the raising by the schizophrenic patients while suffering from acute psychosis and once they were in remission, the punctuation of the paternal and maternal PBI of admission and discharge were compared. In the maternal raising it was observed, in spite that both dimensions scored higher at the discharge, that distance and emotional coldness did not show significant changes. Warmth scored significantly higher at discharge (p = .003). In the case of perception of the parental raising, warmth (p = .001) as will as distance and emotional coldness (p = .02) scored significantly higher at the time of discharge. When analyzing with more detail the items of PBI that showed a significant change with the improvement of acute psychosis, it was observed that in the paternal warmth those were items 5 (p = .008), 7 (p = .021), 11 (p = .015), 12 (p = .049) and 17 (p = .047). As to distance and emotional coldness the items that changed were 16 (p = .002), 18 (p = .004) and 23 (p = .012). In the case of maternal warmth, the items that showed a significant change with the improvement of acute psychosis were 3 (p = .03) and 13 (p = .004). In distance and emotional coldness, only number 14 (p = .015) changed. Of the items of paternal being up that showed a significant change at the time of discharge, it was observed that item 5 had direct relation with the positive symptoms of discharge (p = .03); 7 with the positive symptoms of discharge (p = .01), the general psychopathology of discharge (p = .029) and the total qualification of the PANSS of discharge (p = .012); 11 with the positive symptoms of discharge (p = .04), the general psychopathology of discharge (p = .045) and the total qualification of the PANSS of discharge (p = .037); 12 with the positive symptoms of discharge (p = .003), the general psychopathology of discharge (p = .006) and the total qualification of the PANSS of discharge (p = .009); 18 with the general psychopathology of discharge (p = .041). With respect to the maternal raising it was observed that only number 13 correlated with the positive symptoms of admission (p = .014). In order to determine the relation between these dimensions with the variables and evolution of schizophrenia, a correlation of Pearson was made. In the paternal raising, Warmth (admission) correlated positively with the positive symptoms (admission) (p = .032). Warmth (discharge) was negatively correlated with the positive symptoms (admission) (p = .032) and the number of hospitalizations (p = .034). The paternal Distance and Emotional Coldness (admission) correlated negatively with the age of beginning of the schizophrenia (p = .04), and positively with time of evolution of the disease (p = .048). Distance and emotional coldness (discharge) did not have correlation. With respect to the maternal raising, warmth (admission) was positively correlated with the punctuation of general psychopathology (admission) (p = .032) and the years of study of the patient (p = .026). Distance and Emotional Coldness (admission) did not correlate significantly, nevertheless at the time of discharge did it positively with years of study (p = .03). In order to deter mine if the dimensions of the raising could predict the symptoms of the schizophrenic patient at the time of discharge, a multiple regression analysis was made. It was found that the positive symptoms could be predicted in 41.5% (R2 = .415) through the punctuation of the paternal Distance and Emotional Coldness (admission) (P = .510) and paternal Warmth (discharge) (P = -.622). Negative symptoms were not influenced neither by the paternal raising, nor by the maternal one. The punctuation of the scale of general psychopathology of the PANSS could be predicted in 26.3% (R2 = .263) through maternal warmth (P = -1.01) (discharge) and maternal distance and emotional coldness (P = .805) (discharge). The total qualification of the PANSS at the time of discharge could be predicted in 29.8% (R2 = .298) by maternal warmth (P = .516) (admission) and paternal Warmth (P = -.620) (discharge). The age in with the patient got sick could be predicted though the punctuation of the paternal distance and emotional coldness (P = -.625) (admission) and maternal warmth (P = .5) (discharge) in 44.8% (R2 = .448). The time of evolution could be predicted in 18.2% (R2 = .182) through paternal Distance and Emotional Coldness (P = .427) (admission). The number of hospitalizations was predicted in 37.5% (R2 = .375) by paternal Distance and Emotional Coldness (P = .543) (admission), maternal Warmth (P = -.916) (discharge) and maternal distance and emotional coldness (P = .811) (discharge). The number of days that was committed the patient at the moment of the evaluation could be predicted in 19.6% (R2 = .196) by paternal distance and emotional coldness (P = .484) (admission). Other variables, as the years of study were predicted in 18.6% (R2 = .186) by maternal warmth (P = .474) (admission). Conclusions. The schizophrenic patient in remission had a different perception of their parents than the control group. Schizophrenic patients perceived both parents colder and distant than the control group. In the particular case of first, it was observed that when improving the psychosis, also improved the perception of the raising. This one was related to the psychotic symptoms and other variables of the schizophrenia. These findings indicate the importance of the raising in the evolution of the schizophrenic patient.

University Spirit and Construction of Campus Culture / 中华医学教育探索杂志

University spirit is the soul of a university.In higher education it is an urgent theoretic and practical issue to nurture university spirit.So this paper elaborates relationship between university spirit and campus culture as well as also deals with how to pay more attention to university spirit nurture in campus culture construction.

Effects of exposure conditions to footshocks early in life on spontaneous locomotor activity at maturity in rats

Both genetic and environmental factors are involved in establishing a behavior. An animal study was done to determine the characteristics of interaction between genetic (nature) and environmental (nurture) factors. Delivery of footshocks (0.8 mA x 60 times, at random) early in life was used as the environmental stimulus. As the footshock was delivered repeatedly, a rat showed helplessness behavior and the number of shocks necessary to elicit helplessness was measured to quantify the trait of an animal in coping with the aversive environmental stimulus. The nocturnal ambulatory activity at adulthood was measured as a behavioral expression of the nature-nurture interaction. Although the experience of footshocks early in life did not significantly alter average activity levels at adulthood, the activity was positively correlated with the number of shocks necessary to elicit helplessness (nature) while receiving footshocks (nurture) on postnatal day 14. Additionally, a second exposure to identical shock parameters on postnatal day 21 reversed the relationship. These results clearly showed that an interaction between nature and nurture during infancy leads to substantial behavioral alterations later in life, and suggest that the nature-dependent determination of an adult behavior can be modified in different directions by the conditions of an environmental experience early in life.