Nivel de dificultad y poder de discriminación del examen final de la asignatura Ontogenia Humana y SOMA / Difficulty level and discernment power on Human Ontogeny and SOMA final test subject

RESUMEN Fundamento: La calidad de los instrumentos evaluativos resulta esencial en el proceso de evaluación del aprendizaje. Objetivo: Determinar los índices de dificultad y discriminación del examen final ordinario de la asignatura Ontogenia Humana y Soma. Metodología: Se realizó un estudio retrospectivo transversal en la asignatura Ontogenia y SOMA, del curso 2017-2018 en la Universidad de Ciencias Médicas de Sancti Spíritus, en el que se procesaron 163 exámenes ordinarios finales, el 30 % de los examinados seleccionados mediante un muestreo aleatorio estratificado por grupos, se calcularon el índice de dificultad e índice de discriminación por preguntas, temas y ciencias. Resultados: El número de incisos esperados y reales, de acuerdo con las horas clases para cada ciencia estuvo ajustado, no así en las temáticas Ontogenia de 17 incisos esperados se dedicaron 12 (70.5 %), en SOMA de 34 incisos esperados se dedicaron 29 (85.2 %); el índice de dificultad por temáticas, ciencias y temarios fue medianamente fácil (0.74-0.86) al igual que para el examen en su conjunto. El índice de discriminación del tema Ontogenia fue superior en el temario 1 (T1: 0.37 vs. T2: 0.24) y similar en SOMA (T1: 0.40 vs. T2: 0.39) y a nivel de las ciencias [Embriología (T1: 0.39 vs. T2: 0.31), Anatomía (T1: 0.39 vs. T2: 0.37)]. A nivel de preguntas, el índice de discriminación más bajo lo tuvo la pregunta 1 del primer temario (0.22), el resto tuvo índices de discriminación superiores a 0.30. Conclusiones: Ambos temarios tienen un índice de discriminación similar. El índice de dificultad fue medianamente fácil.

ABSTRACT Background: The quality of the assessment instruments is essential in the learning assessment process. Objective: To determine the difficulty and discernment indexes of the Human Ontogeny and SOMA ordinary final test subject. Methodology: A cross-sectional retrospective study was conducted on the Ontogeny and SOMA subject, from 2017 to 2018 academic year at the Sancti Spíritus Faculty of Medical Sciences, 163 final ordinary tests were processed, 30 % of the examinees selected by stratified random cluster sampling, the difficulty and discernment index were calculated by questions, topics and sciences. Results: The number of expected and real items, according to the class hours for each science, was adjusted, but not in the subjects (Ontogeny of 17 expected items were dedicated 12 (70.5 %), in SOMA of 34 expected items 29 were dedicated (85.2 %), the difficulty index by subjects, sciences and syllabus was moderately easy (0.74-0.86) as for the exam as a whole. The discernment index of the topic Ontogeny was higher in the syllabus 1 (T1: 0.37 vs. T2: 0.24) and similar in SOMA (T1: 0.40 vs. T2: 0.39) and [Embryology (T1: 0.39 vs. T2: 0.31), Anatomy (T1: 0.39 vs. T2: 0.37)]. At the science level questions, the lowest discernment index was found in question 1 from the first syllabus (0.22), the rest had discernment indexes higher than 0.30. Conclusions: Both topics have a similar discernment index. The difficulty index was moderately easy.

Procedimento para ensino de mandos e para promover variação na topografia das respostas em crianças autistas / Procedures to teach mand frames and to promote variation of the responses in children with autism / Procedimientos para enseñar respuestas de comandos y para promover la variación en la topografía de respuestas en niños autistas

Este estudo avaliou um procedimento para ensinar e produzir variabilidade em topografias de mando para duas crianças com autismo. Os objetivos foram: 1) ensinar novas topografias de mando por um procedimento de fading out do modelo verbal, 2) verificar se novas topografias de mando eram emitidas por generalização recombinativa, e 3) ensinar variabilidade pelo reforçamento direto do variar. Cinco topografias de mando foram ensinadas por um procedimento de fading out do modelo ecoico. Para ensinar variabilidade, usou-se o esquema Lag no qual reforçamento era contingente à resposta ser diferente das anteriores. O esquema Lag foi aumentado gradualmente. Os resultados mostraram que as crianças aprenderam as cinco topografias de mando. Novas topografias emergiram por generalização recombinativa, i.e., combinações entre topografias de mando ensinadas com novos objetos e partes abstraídas das diferentes topografias recombinadas em novas topografias. Variabilidade foi produzida só quando variações foram reforçadas após o ensino das topografias de mando.

This study evaluated a procedure to teach and produce variability in mand topographies to two children with autism. The objectives of the study were: 1) teaching new mand frames by a procedure of fading out the verbal model, 2) verifying whether new mand frames were emitted by recombinative generalization, and 3) teaching variability by direct reinforcing variation. Five mand frames were taught by a procedure of fading out the echoic model. To teach variability, a Lag schedule was used in which reinforcement was delivered contingent on the response being different from the previous ones. The Lag schedule was increased gradually. The results showed that the children learned the five mand frames. New mand topographies emerged from recombinative generalization, i.e., combinations between taught mand frames with new objects and parts of different mand frames recombined in new frames. Variability was produced only when variation was reinforced after mand frames were taught.

El trabajo buscó evaluar un procedimiento para enseñar y producir variabilidad para dos niños autistas. Los objetivos del estudio fueron: 1) enseñarles nuevas topografías de comando por medio de un procedimiento de desvanecimiento del modelo verbal; 2) testear si se emiten nuevos comandos por generalización recombinativa, y 3) enseñarles variación por medio del reforzamiento directo de la variación. Se enseñaron cinco topografías de comando con un procedimiento de desvanecimiento del modelo ecoico. Para enseñar variabilidad, el programa Lag utilizado consistió en reforzar las respuestas que fueran diferentes a las anteriores. El programa Lag fue aumentado gradualmente. Los resultados mostraron que los niños aprendieron las cinco topografías de comando. Surgieron nuevas topografías de comando por generalización recombinativa, es decir, combinaciones entre topografias de comando enseñadas con nuevos objetos y elementos de comandos diferentes recombinados en nuevas topografías. Cuando se reforzó la variación, se produjo variabilidad, después de que se enseñaran las topografias de comando.

Equivalência de estímulos e ciúme: efeito de história pré-experimental / Stimulus equivalence and jealousy: effect of pre-experimental history

A formação de classes de estímulos equivalentes tem sido usada como modelo experimental para investigar uma série de fenômenos comportamentais, tais como o desenvolvimento de comportamento simbólico e a transferência de funções que os eventos ambientais adquirem por meio de relações condicionais. O objetivo deste estudo consistiu em analisar o efeito de estímulos com alto grau afetivo pré-experimentalmente constituído, na formação de classes de equivalência estabelecidas em contexto experimental, quando as relações emergentes podem se caracterizar por um conflito na escolha dos estímulos. Participaram 17 estudantes universitários que foram submetidos ao procedimento de escolha de acordo com modelo e aos testes das relações emergentes, para formar quatro classes de equivalência com quatro estímulos cada. Verificou-se que 10 dos 17 participantes formaram as classes equivalentes e observou-se correlação positiva entre o desempenho no Teste de Equivalência e o escore na Escala de Ciúme Romântico, sugerindo que a história pré-experimental referente ao envolvimento afetivo interferiu no desempenho dos participantes. O efeito de interferência provavelmente é devido ao conflito entre contingências: uma que controla o responder diante de relações condicionais pré-experimentalmente estabelecidas, envolvendo estímulos com alto valor afetivo, e outra estabelecida no contexto experimental.

The formation of stimulus equivalence classes has been used as an experimental model to investigate a series of behavioral phenomena, such as the development of symbolic behavior and transfer of functions that environmental events acquire through conditional relations. The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of stimuli with high pre-experimentally constituted affective grade in the formation of equivalence classes established in an experimental context, when the emergent relations can be characterized by a conflict in choosing stimuli. Participants were 17 college students exposed to matching to sample procedure and the tests of emergent relations to form four equivalence classes with four stimuli each. The results showed that 10 out of 17 participants formed equivalence classes, and positive correlation was observed between the performance on the Equivalence Test and the score on the Romantic Jealousy Scale, suggesting that the pre-experimental history related to emotional involvement interfered with participants' performance. The interference effect is probably due to the conflict between contingencies: one that controls responses to pre-experimentally established conditional relations involving stimuli with high emotional value, and another one, established in the experimental setting.

Reversões repetidas de discriminação simples combinadas com estímulos olfativos em cães domésticos / Repetead yoked reversals of simple discriminations with olfatory stimuli in domestic dogs

Este estudo objetivou ensinar um responder adequado a formação de classes funcionais de estímulos olfativos a três cães domésticos utilizando três fases de treino de reversões repetidas e combinadas de discriminações simples combinadas: (1) com dois estímulos; (2) em pares com dois conjuntos de estímulos e (3) com quatro estímulos. Os sujeitos aprenderam as tarefas nas Fases 1 e 2. Um dos sujeitos apresentou learning set da tarefa na Fase 1, mas nenhum apresentou responder condizente com a formação de classes. Discute-se que a exigência de discriminar quatro estímulos na mesma tentativa tornou a tarefa complexa demais para os cães e sugere-se um novo estudo para tratar com essa dificuldade

This study aimed to install an adequate response to the formation of functional classes of olfactory stimuli in three domestic dogs through training repeated and yoked reversals of simple discriminations in three phases: (1) with two stimuli (2) in pairs with two sets of stimuli, and (3) with four stimuli. The subjects learned the tasks in Phases 1 and 2, and one of them showed learning set of the task in Phase 1; but none responded in a way befitting the formation of functional classes. It is argued that the requirement to discriminating four stimuli in the same trial made the task too complex for the dogs,and a new study is suggested to deal with this difficulty

Aprendizagem de discriminação auditivo-visual a partir de uma única tentativa de exclusão com objetos tridimensionais / Learning auditory-visual discrimination from a single exclusion trial with three-dimensional objects

O responder por exclusão é um padrão consistente de comportamento descrito como a tendência em selecionar o objeto indefinido, entre outros definidos, diante de um nome indefinido. Como a relação nome-objeto nem sempre se mantém após uma tentativa, o objetivo deste estudo foi verificar o efeito da apresentação de características do objeto indefinido na aprendizagem. Foi solicitado que os participantes (10 crianças de 24 a 34 meses) selecionassem brinquedos correspondentes às palavras ditadas, dentre um conjunto (linha de base com objetos e palavras definidos); então, eram conduzidas sondas de exclusão e de verificação de aprendizagem. Características específicas dos objetos indefinidos eram demonstradas antes das sondas na Condição Com Demonstração (CD) e não ocorriam na Condição Sem Demonstração (SD). Oito crianças responderam por exclusão em todas as sondas; não houve diferenças significativas entre as condições na aprendizagem. Os dados sugerem que a demonstração de características do objeto não contribui para a aprendizagem.

Responding by exclusion is a consistent pattern of behavior described as the tendency to select the undefined object, among other defined, to an undefined name. Since the relationship (object name) does not always hold after a trial, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of presentation of the undefined object characteristics in learning. It was requested that participants (10 children 24-34 months) choose a toy to the word dictated, among a set (baseline with defined objects and words); then, were conducted exclusion and learning probes. Features of the undefined object was demonstrated before the probes in Condition CD and did not occur in Condition SD. Eight children accounted for exclusion in all probes; there was no difference in learning probes. The data suggest that the demonstration of the object’s features does not contribute to learning.

Blank-comparison matching-to-sample reveals a false positive symmetry test in a capuchin monkey

A positive symmetry test result was obtained with a capuchin monkey that had previously exhibited virtually errorless AB and BA arbitrary matching-to-sample (MTS) with different stimuli. The symmetry test (BA) followed the acquisition of a new AB relation. It seemed possible, however, that the positive result could have occurred through the exclusion of previously defined comparison stimuli and not because the new AB and BA relations had the property of symmetry. To assess this possibility, a blank-comparison MTS procedure was implemented that permitted the separate assessment of select and reject (i.e., exclusion) control with both baseline and BA matching relations. In this assessment, the monkey did not exhibit reliable BA matching when exclusion was not possible, thus showing that the symmetry result was a false positive. However, the study demonstrated the feasibility of using a blank comparison MTS procedure with capuchins. The present results may set the stage for more successful methodology for establishing desired forms of relational stimulus control in capuchins and ultimately improving the assessment of relational learning capacity in that species, other nonhuman species, and nonverbal humans...

Exclusion performance in visual simple discrimination in dogs (Canis familiaris)

Choices based on exclusion have been investigated in different species because of its emergent nature, leading to evidence of rudimentary symbolic behavior in non-verbal organisms. Simple discrimination procedures provide a simple method to investigate exclusion performance, in which each trial consists of the simultaneous presentation of two stimuli, one with a positive function (S+) and one with a negative function (S-). In exclusion probe trials, an undefined stimulus (UnS) is presented with a familiar S-, and choices based on exclusion may lead to choosing the UnS, excluding the previously known S-. Novelty control trials (S+/UnS) are also conducted to assess the possible preference for the UnS. In this case, if performance is not controlled by novelty, then the subjects must choose the S+ and not the UnS. The present study investigated exclusion performance in visual simple simultaneous discrimination tasks in eight dogs. The results indicated that seven of eight dogs showed evidence of exclusion performance (p < .05). These findings corroborate the literature that shows that dogs are capable of responding by exclusion, suggesting that potentially symbolic behavior may rely on basic behavioral learning and conditioning principles...

Assessing restricted stimulus control in typically developing preschool children and bees (Melipona quadrifasciata)

This study established a simple simultaneous discrimination between a pair of two-element compound visual stimuli in children (Experiment 1) and bees (Melipona quadrifasciata, Experiment 2). The contingencies required discriminative control by the compound and the question was whether the accurate stimulus control reached at this level would hold for each individual element of the compound. After baseline reached stability, probe trials assessed stimulus control by each single element of both S+ and S-. Average data showed that children (Exp. 1) tended to show stimulus control by a single element of the S+ compound. In Experiment 2 three of four bees showed stimulus control by both elements of S+ and did not respond or responded only infrequently to the elements of the S-. The children's decline in discrimination accuracy in probe trials, along with its maintenance during the baseline, replicated previous findings showing the development of restricted stimulus control (RSC). The precise stimulus control shown by the bees indicated that all elements correlated with reinforcement acquired stimulus control over their behavior; this confirms the extensive literature on visual discriminative learning in bees, but due to the small number of subjects it is premature to say that bees do not develop RSC...

Manutenção das habilidades auditivas pós treinamento auditivo / Maintenance of auditory abilities after auditory training

Objetivo Verificar a eficácia do Treinamento Auditivo e a manutenção das habilidades auditivas treinadas após um, dois, ou três anos do seu término, com o intuito de comprovar a eficácia do treino em longo prazo. Métodos Dez crianças com alteração do processamento auditivo - graus variando entre leve a moderado, moderado e moderado a severo - passaram por um programa de treinamento auditivo de oito semanas e foram reavaliadas imediatamente após o treino (PÓS-1) e um, dois, ou três anos depois (PÓS-2). Resultados Foram observadas diferenças significativas no desempenho médio, entre a avaliação pré-treino e as avaliações PÓS-1 e PÓS-2, sem diferenças entre as duas últimas. Não foram observadas correlações entre o intervalo de tempo entre PÓS-1 e PÓS-2 e a diferença no desempenho dessas avaliações. Em PÓS-1, a maioria das avaliações apresentou-se dentro da normalidade, ou com alterações leves do PA, sendo que 60% dos indivíduos mantiveram tais resultados em PÓS-2. Conclusão Verificamos, neste estudo, que o Treinamento Auditivo é eficaz na intervenção dos Transtornos do Processamento Auditivo e que os benefícios obtidos após o treinamento se mantêm, mesmo após um, dois, ou três anos do seu término. .

Purpose The aim of the current study was to determine the efficacy of auditory training and to establish the long-term effectiveness of the acquired auditory abilities one, two or three years following the completion of the program. Methods Ten children, who presented abnormal auditory processing ranging in degree from mild-moderate, moderate, to moderate-severe, underwent an 8-week auditory training program. All participants were reassessed immediately after training (POST-1) and one, two or three years after training (POST-2). Results Significant differences were detected in average performance between the assessment made prior to auditory training (PRE) and POST-1 assessment, and between PRE and POST-2 assessments, but no significant differences were found between POST-1 and POST-2 assessments. No correlations were detected between POST-1 and POST-2 time interval, and the difference in performance between these two evaluations. The auditory processing assessments in POST-1 were considered normal, or were mildly altered. Further, 60% of the individuals achieved the same results in POST-2 assessment. Conclusion In the current study, we verified that auditory training is an effective intervention for Auditory Processing Disorders, and that the benefits obtained after training persist even after intervals of one, two or three years following intervention. .

Discriminação com três diferentes contingências em SA: extinção, reforçamento e punição, extinção e punição / Discrimination using three different contingences in SA: extinction, reinforcement and punishment, extinction and punishment

Estudos relataram maior eficácia no treino discriminativo quando choque elétrico (usado como punidor ou como reforçador negativo) foi combinado à extinção na presença de SΔ. O presente estudo explorou a generalidade desses dados com jato de ar quente (JAQ). No Experimento 1, três grupos de dois ratos aprenderam discriminação escuro (SD) versus claro (SΔ) em três diferentes contingências para SΔ: extinção, reforçamento+punição e extinção+ punição. Observou-se uma maior eficiência do treino combinando extinção+punição na produção da discriminação. No Experimento 2, as funções claro versus escuro foram invertidas em relação ao Experimento 1. Observou-se equivalência entre reforçamento+punição e extinção+ punição, ambas mais eficazes que a extinção sozinha. De forma geral, os dados confirmam a eficiência do estabelecimento de contingências de punição positiva combinada com extinção na presença de SΔ em contexto de treino discriminativo utilizando o JAQ como aversivo, ampliando a generalidade do fenômeno.

Previous studies reported better efficacy in discrimination training when electric shock (used as punisher or as negative reinforcer stimulus) was combined with extinction in presence of SΔ. The present study explored the generality of such data with Hot Air Blast (HAB). In Experiment 1, three groups of two rats learned discrimination between light (SΔ) versusdark (SD) under three different contingencies for SΔ: extinction, reinforcement+ punishment, and extinction+punishment. The data showed more training efficacy when combining punishment and extinction. In Experiment 2, the functions of light and dark stimuli were reversed. The data showed equivalence between punishment and extinction+ punishment, with both more efficient than extinction alone. Generally, the data confirm the efficacy of arranging punishment contingencies combined with extinction in presence ofin context of discrimination training with HBA as aversive stimulus, increasing the generality of the phenomenon.

Responder de cães por exclusão em tarefas de discriminação condicional / Conditional discrimination responding by exclusion in dogs

O presente estudo treinou o responder por exclusão em cães por meio do ensino de discriminações condicionais entre objetos e seus respectivos nomes ditados e avaliou empiricamente a influência neste desempenho de dicas sociais humanas (gestos direcionados aos estímulos) quando estas eram direcionadas ao estímulo contrário. Os dois animais demonstraram rápida aquisição de controle pelo estímulo novo, controle que se manteve mesmo com a inserção de dicas sociais contrárias ao estímulo ditado (instruir oralmente a seleção de S+, porém apontar para S-). Foi evidente a influência das dicas sociais contrárias quando os estímulos eram familiares, com ruptura do controle preestabelecido. Discute-se a relevância deste estudo na comparação de diferentes aspectos do ambiente no comportamento canino, e enfatiza-se a necessidade de incluir sondas de controle pela novidade, para pesquisas futuras

This study trained the responding by exclusion in dogs, based on a conditional discrimination between dictated names and objects, and empirically evaluated the influence in that performance of human social cues (gestures directed to stimuli) towards the opposite stimulus. As a result, both animals showed rapid acquisition of control by the new stimulus, a pattern that persisted even after the inclusion of conflicting social cues toward the wrong stimulus (orally instructing the selection of S+, but pointing to the S-). The influence of conflicting social cues when the stimuli involved were familiar is clear, a pattern showed by the disruption of pre-established control. We discuss the relevance of this study in the comparison of different aspects of the environment on the behavior of dogs, and the need to include control probes for novelty in future research is emphasized

Evaluation of Origanum vulgare L. ssp. viridis leaves extract effect on discrimination learning and LTP induction in the CA1 region of the rat hippocampus

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of aqueous extract of Origanum vulgare L. ssp. Viridis [ORG] on discrimination learning and long term potentiation [LTP] in CA1 region of the rat hippocampus. A group of adult male Wistar rats weighing 275 +/- 25 g received aqueous extract of ORG [150, 300, 450 mg/kg/day] by intraperitoenal injection for one week, and the other group received saline [n=6]. A wooden T-maze was used to evaluate the discrimination learning. In electrophysiological experiments, the effects of ORG leaves extract on induction and maintenance long term potentiation [LTP] in CA1 hippocampus area was determined. LTP was evaluated in CA1 region after high-frequency stimulation [200 Hz] of the Schaffer collaterals. Also, serum antioxidant levels were analyzed in the two groups [n=4]. Statistical analysis showed significant decreases in the number of total [significantly at the dose of 300 and 450 mg/kg] and wrong [significantly at the dose of 300 mg/kg] entrance into opposite box of T-maze procedure in ORG-treated animals [P<0.05]. In electrophysiological study, the rats which had received ORG [150, 300, and 450 mg/kg] showed an increase in both population spike amplitude [59.7 +/- 14.1%, 85 +/- 14.7% and 49.3 +/- 8.7% respectively, compared to 39 +/- 9.2% increase in saline group] and maintenance of LTP in hippocampus CA1 after high frequency stimulation in Schaffer collateral pathway. In serum antioxidant assay, level of antioxidants in ORG groups [300 and 450 mg/kg] remarkably increased in comparison to saline group [P< 0.05 and P<0.001, in turn]. Our result suggest that Origanum aqueous extract can improve the learning criteria in rats

Cebus cf. apella exhibits rapid acquisition of complex stimulus relations and emergent performance by exclusion

A "second generation" matching-to-sample procedure that minimizes past sources of artifacts involves (1) successive discrimination between sample stimuli, (2) stimulus displays ranging from four to 16 comparisons, (3) variable stimulus locations to avoid unwanted stimulus-location control, and (4) high accuracy levels (e.g., 90 percent correct on a 16-choice task in which chance accuracy is 6 percent). Examples of behavioral engineering with experienced capuchin monkeys included four-choice matching problems with video images of monkeys with substantially above-chance matching in a single session and 90 percent matching within six sessions. Exclusion performance was demonstrated by interspersing non-identical sample-comparison pairs within a baseline of a nine-comparison identity-matching-to-sample procedure with pictures as stimuli. The test for exclusion presented the newly "mapped" stimulus in a situation in which exclusion was not possible. Degradation of matching between physically non-identical forms occurred while baseline identity accuracy was sustained at high levels, thus confirming that Cebus cf. apella is capable of exclusion. Additionally, exclusion performance when baseline matching relations involved non-identical stimuli was shown

The neurobiology of infant maternal odor learning

Infant rats must learn to identify their mother’s diet-dependent odor. Once learned, maternal odor controls pups’ approach to the mother, their social behavior and nipple attachment. Here we present a review of the research from four different laboratories, which suggests that neural and behavioral responses to the natural maternal odor and neonatal learned odors are similar. Together, these data indicate that pups have a unique learning circuit relying on the olfactory bulb for neural plasticity and on the hyperfunctioning noradrenergic locus coeruleus flooding the olfactory bulb with norepinephrine to support the neural changes. Another important factor making this system unique is the inability of the amygdala to become incorporated into the infant learning circuit. Thus, infant rats appear to be primed in early life to learn odors that will evoke approach responses supporting attachment to the caregiver.

Análises do matching de identidade generalizado por contingências de três e quatro termos: implicações para equivalência de estímulos / Analyzing generalized identity matching by contingencies of three and four terms: Implications for stimulus equivalence / Analyses de appariement de ègalitè (identity matching) généralisée via trois et quatre terms: implication pour le stimuli équivalence / Análisis de la igualación de identidad generalizada por contingencias de tres y cuatro términos: implicaciones la equivalencia de estímulos

A expansão da tríplice continência em unidades com quatro ou mais elementos abriu novas perspectivas para a compreensão de comportamentos complexos, como a emergência de respostas que derivam da formação de classes de estímulos equivalentes e que modelam comportamentos simbólicos e conceituais. Na investigação experimental, o procedimento de matching to sample tem sido frequentemente empregado para estabelecer discriminações condicionais. Em particular, a obtenção do matching de identidade generalizado é considerada demonstrativa da aquisição dos conceitos de igualdade e diferença. Segundo argumentamos, o fato de se buscar a compreensão desses conceitos a partir de processos discriminativos condicionais pode ter sido responsável pelos frequentes fracassos em demonstrá-los em sujeitos não humanos. A falta de correspondência entre os processos discriminativos responsáveis por estabelecer a relação de reflexividade entre estímulos que formam classes equivalentes e o matching de identidade generalizado, nesse sentido, é aqui revista ao longo de estudos empíricos e discutida com respeito às suas implicações

By expanding the three-term contingency into units of four or more elements, new perspectives to comprehend complex behaviors have been opened, such as conceptual and symbolic behaviors modeled by equivalence classes. In the experimental investigation, the matching-to-sample procedure has been employed to establish conditional discriminations. Particularly, a generalized identity matching performance has been considered to demonstrate the acquisition of the concepts of sameness and difference. As we analyze, the concepts comprehension search, based on conditional discriminations, has been responsible for the failures to demonstrate them in non-human subjects. In this paper, the distinctions between the discriminative processes that lead to a reflexivity performance in an equivalence class and the generalized matching to sample is examined and discussed

L'élargissement de la triple contingence en unités avec quatre ou plus termes ouvrit nouvelles pespectives pour la compréhension de comportements complexes comme l'émergence de réponces provenant de l'établissement de classes de stimuli équivalentes qui à son tour modèlent comportements symboliques et conceptuelles. Dans la recherche expérimentale, le procédure de appariement de ègalite a été utilisé fréquemment pour établir des discriminations conditionelles. Particulièrement, la obtention de l'égalite généralisée est considere comme une manifestation des concepts d'égalité et de différence. Selon le texte actuel, le fait de chercher à comprendre ces concepts à partir de procédures de discrimination conditionnelle peut avoir été responsable des échecs fréquents avec des animaux (non humains). L'absence de corrélation entre les processus responsables de l'établissement les classes d'équivalence les stimuli et l'égalité généralisée est discutée sur la base des résultats d'études empiriques et ses implication

La expansión de la triple relación de contingencia en unidades con cuatro, o más, elementos abrió nuevas perspectivas para la comprensión de comportamientos complejos, tal como la emergencia de respuestas que derivan de la formación de clases de estímulos equivalentes y que modela comportamientos simbólicos y conceptuales. En la investigación experimental, el procedimiento de Igualación a la Muestra (Matching to Sample o MTS en inglés) se ha empleado frecuentemente para establecer discriminaciones condicionales. En particular, la obtención de igualación de identidad generalizada es considerada como una demostración de la adquisición de los conceptos de igualdad y diferencia. Según argumentamos, el hecho de intentar comprender esos conceptos a partir de procesos de discriminación condicional puede haber sido responsable por los frecuentes fracasos cuando se ha intentado encontrar en sujetos no humanos. La falta de correspondencia entre los procesos de discriminación responsables por establecer la relación de reflexividad entre estímulos que forman clases equivalentes y la igualación de identidad generalizada, en ese sentido, es revisada aquí a lo largo de estudios empíricos y son discutidas sus implicaciones

Generalization of temporal order detection skill learning: two experimental studies of children with dyslexia

The objective of this study was to investigate the phenomenon of learning generalization of a specific skill of auditory temporal processing (temporal order detection) in children with dyslexia. The frequency order discrimination task was applied to children with dyslexia and its effect after training was analyzed in the same trained task and in a different task (duration order discrimination) involving the temporal order discrimination too. During study 1, one group of subjects with dyslexia (N = 12; mean age = 10.9 ± 1.4 years) was trained and compared to a group of untrained dyslexic children (N = 28; mean age = 10.4 ± 2.1 years). In study 2, the performance of a trained dyslexic group (N = 18; mean age = 10.1 ± 2.1 years) was compared at three different times: 2 months before training, at the beginning of training, and at the end of training. Training was carried out for 2 months using a computer program responsible for training frequency ordering skill. In study 1, the trained group showed significant improvement after training only for frequency ordering task compared to the untrained group (P < 0.001). In study 2, the children showed improvement in the last interval in both frequency ordering (P < 0.001) and duration ordering (P = 0.01) tasks. These results showed differences regarding the presence of learning generalization of temporal order detection, since there was generalization of learning in only one of the studies. The presence of methodological differences between the studies, as well as the relationship between trained task and evaluated tasks, are discussed.

As noções de classificação e seriação na criança com síndrome de Down / The notions of classification and seriation in children with Down syndrome

OBJETIVO: Caracterizar o desenvolvimento das noções de classificação e seriação em crianças com síndrome de Down. MÉTODOS: A amostra foi constituída por 15 crianças, com idade cronológica entre cinco e 13 anos, localizadas no período pré-operatório do desenvolvimento cognitivo, divididas em três grupos igualitários, de acordo com sua idade mental, cujas médias foram de 3,4 anos para G1, de 4,3 anos para G2 e de 5,4 anos para G3, obtidas por meio da aplicação do Primary Test of Nonverbal Intelligence (PTONI) em sessão diferente das demais provas. As crianças foram submetidas a provas de classificação, com materiais não-figurativos e figurativos, e de seriação, com conjuntos de canecas e de bastonetes de tamanhos diferentes e escalonados. As crianças foram avaliadas individualmente em sessões diferentes para classificação e seriação, sem ordem previamente estabelecida. Todas as sessões foram filmadas e transcritas em protocolos específicos. RESULTADOS: Diferenças estatisticamente significantes foram observadas para a classificação figural entre G1 e G3, mais utilizada em G1 e não mais presente em G3, e para a classificação não-figural por características semânticas, com menor uso em G1 e maior em G3. Para a seriação, os resultados estatisticamente significantes foram obtidos entre G1 e G3, com relação à empírica e entre G3 e os outros grupos, para a intermediária. A seriação operativa somente apareceu em G3. CONCLUSÃO: As análises intra e intergrupos apontaram o caráter evolutivo e cumulativo das noções de classificação e seriação. Foi verificado que as crianças estudadas seguiram a ordem de aquisição como observada no desenvolvimento típico. Registro no Clinical Trials nº NCT00952354.

PURPOSE: To characterize the development of classification and seriation notions in children with Down syndrome. METHODS: The sample was composed of 15 children with chronological ages between five and 13 years old. Subjects were placed in the pre-operational period of cognitive development and arranged in three egalitarian groups, according to their mental age. Mean mental ages were 3.4 years for G1, 4.3 years for G2, and 5.4 years for G3, as measured by the Primary Test of Nonverbal Intelligence (PTONI), administered in a different session than the others tasks. Children were submitted to classification tasks using non-figurative and figurative materials, and seriation tasks using bowls and sticks of different sizes. Subjects were individually assessed in different sessions for classification and seriation tasks, with no previously established order. All sessions were registered in video and transcribed in specific protocols. RESULTS: Statistically significant differences between G1 and G3 were observed for figural classification, with a higher use by G1 and no use by G3, and for non-figural classification with semantic characteristics with a lower use by G1 and a higher use by G3. For seriation, statistically significant results were obtained for comparisons between G1 and G3 regarding the empirical kind, and for comparisons between G3 and the other groups regarding the intermediate kind. Operational seriation was observed only for G3. CONCLUSION: Within- and between-group analysis showed the progressive and cumulative character of classification and seriation notions. Moreover, the studied children followed the same acquisition order observed in typical development. Clinical Trials registration # NCT00952354.

Discriminación de fuentes de control temporal en programas de reforzamiento de intervalo / Discrimination of behavioral control sources in interval schedules of reinforcement

Whitaker, Lowe y Wearden reportaron un patrón diferencial de distribución de respuestas en un programa mixto de intervalo fijo de dos componentes, en función de la razón existente entre las duraciones de ambos intervalos. Estos resultados se explicaron aludiendo a la existencia de fuentes diferenciadas de control conductual para ambos componentes. En el presente estudio se pretendía contrastar esta hipótesis incluyendo una señal contextual que señalaba el programa de intervalo activo. Se utilizaron ocho ratas distribuidas en dos grupos con diferente razón y se compararon dos fases, una con discriminativo y otra sin este. Se encontró que la inclusión de la señal alteró la tasa de respuestas en los componentes de menor duración.

Whitaker, Lowe and Wearden reported a differential response pattern using a mixed two-component fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement, considering the ratio between the duration of both intervals. These results were explained in regards to the differential behavioral control sources for each component.This study was intended to contrast that hypothesis by including a contextual cue to mark the beginning of each active interval schedule. Eight rats were assigned to two groups with different ratio. In each ratio two conditions were in effect: one with a cue and the other without it. The results showed that the inclusion of the cue changed the response rate in the components with less duration.

Tipologia de erros de leitura de escolares brasileiros considerados bons leitores / Reading errors typology of Brazilian students considered good readers

BACKGROUND: assessment of oral reading. AIM: to characterize, according to the variables of public or private school and literacy, the types of errors in word reading presented by typical elementary/middle school students considered competent readers by their teachers. METHOD: participants of this study were 151 students with ages ranging between 8 and 12 years, from the 4th to the 7th grade of public and private schools. The students read a list of 38 words. The oral readings were transcribed and the errors analyzed according to their frequency. The frequency of errors was calculated based on the possibilities of errors presented by the used word list. RESULTS: the obtained results gave evidence to the errors presented by typical students of both public and private schools from all of the tested grades. There was a statistically significant progressive reduction in errors of orthographic decoding according to literacy (p<0.0001). Considering the groups, students from private schools presented fewer errors of global orthographic decoding when compared to students from public schools (p < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: the results suggest that reading errors are part of the learning process of orthographic decoding rules. These errors are progressively overcome with literacy. The domain of orthographic decoding independent of the context occurred more prematurely than that which is dependent of the grapheme context.

TEMA: avaliação da leitura oral. OBJETIVO: caracterizar, segundo as variáveis rede de ensino e escolaridade, os tipos de erro na leitura de palavras isoladas, apresentados por escolares típicos do ensino fundamental, considerados competentes por seus professores. MÉTODO: participaram da pesquisa 151 escolares com idade entre oito e doze anos, matriculados do quarto ao sétimo ano do ensino fundamental das redes pública e particular. Os escolares leram uma lista com 38 palavras. As leituras orais foram transcritas e os erros analisados, segundo a freqüência de erros cometidos calculada com base na possibilidade de erros oferecida pela lista apresentada. RESULTADOS: os resultados encontrados evidenciaram a presença de erros quando analisadas as leituras dos escolares típicos de ambas as redes de ensino e de todas as séries estudadas. Houve redução progressiva e estatisticamente significante dos erros de decodificação ortográfica em função da progressão da escolaridade (p < 0,0001). Considerando a rede de ensino, os escolares da rede particular apresentaram menor número de erros que os de escola pública quando comparado o desempenho na decodificação ortográfica global na prova de leitura de palavras (p < 0,0001). CONCLUSÃO: os resultados demonstraram que os erros de leitura fazem parte do aprendizado das regras de decodificação ortográfica e são superados, progressivamente, com o aumento da escolaridade. O domínio da decodificação da ortografia independente do contexto ocorreu mais precocemente que o da dependente do contexto grafêmico.

Discriminação simples com mudanças sucessivas na função dos estímulos: aprendizagem em bebês / Repeated shifts of simple discrimination: learning in infants

Investigou-se em três bebês a aprendizagem de discriminações simples com mudanças sucessivas na função dos estímulos (DSMS). Figuras animadas foram apresentadas em uma tela sensível ao toque. O treino começou com uma discriminação simples (DS) com dois estímulos, com mudança na função dos estímulos, até que todos tivessem funcionado uma vez como S+ e outra como S-. Posteriormente, três estímulos foram apresentados na mesma tentativa, completando um ciclo de DSMS. Duas crianças aprenderam a DSMS com dois estímulos e uma, a DS com dois estímulos. A substituição dos conjuntos de estímulos durante o treino, caracterizada como um treino de múltiplos exemplares, parece ter favorecido a permanência das crianças na tarefa e a aprendizagem da mesma.

This study investigated the acquisition of repeated shifts of simple discriminations (RSSD) in three infants. Animated images were presented on a touch sensitive screen. The procedure started off with a two-choice simple discrimination training (SD) with shifts in the stimulus function until all stimuli had functioned once as S+ and once as S-. Afterwards, all the three stimuli were presented in the same trial completing a RSSD cycle. Two of the infants learned the RSSD with the two-choice procedure and one infant learned the SD with two stimuli. The replacement of the stimulus sets throughout the training, characterized as a multiple exemplar training, seems to have contributed to the infants' engagement in the task as well as to the acquisition of the discriminations.