Isquemia intestinal, una manifestación inusual de la embolia paradójica. Un reporte de caso / Intestinal ischaemia as a rare manifestation of a paradoxical embolism. A case report

Introducción. La embolia paradójica es un evento trombótico originado en la circulación venosa, que se manifiesta como embolismo arterial por medio de un defecto anatómico a nivel cardíaco o pulmonar. Se asocia principalmente a eventos cerebrovasculares, aunque se han encontrado casos de infarto agudo de miocardio, infarto renal y otros eventos isquémicos. Caso clínico. Paciente de 47 años, quien consultó por cuadro de dolor abdominal, que requirió manejo quirúrgico de urgencia, donde identificaron isquemia intestinal importante. Los estudios adicionales hallaron déficit de proteína S y persistencia de foramen oval permeable. Resultados. La presencia de trombosis arterial se conoce como trombosis de sitios inusuales y requiere de estudios para descartar trombofilias asociadas u otros estados protrombóticos. El déficit de proteína S es una trombofilia infrecuente, la cual se asocia en la vida adulta a eventos trombóticos de origen venoso. En presencia de defectos anatómicos, como un foramen oval permeable, puede progresar a embolia arterial, configurando un cuadro de embolismo paradójico. La estratificación de estos pacientes requiere imágenes que demuestran el defecto mencionado, así como el posible origen de los émbolos. El manejo se basa en anticoagulación plena, manejo de soporte, resolver las manifestaciones trombóticas existentes y un cierre temprano del defecto anatómico. Conclusiones. El embolismo paradójico debe sospecharse en caso de trombosis de sitios inusuales. Requiere de un estudio exhaustivo con imágenes y su manejo debe basarse en anticoagulación y cierre del defecto.

Introduction. Paradoxical embolism is a thrombotic event originating in the venous circulation, which manifests as arterial embolism through an anatomical cardiac or pulmonary defect. It is mainly associated with stroke, also presenting as acute myocardial infarction, renal infarction, and other ischemic events. Clinical case. A 47-year-old patient was admitted due to abdominal pain, which required emergency surgical management, finding significant intestinal ischemia. Additional studies found protein S deficiency and evidence of a patent foramen ovale. Discussion. Arterial thrombosis is known as unusual thrombosis; this situation requires to rule out associated thrombophilia or other prothrombotic diseases. Protein S deficiency is a rare thrombophilia, which in adults causes venous thrombosis. In the presence of anatomical defects, such as a patent foramen ovale, it can progress to arterial embolism, presenting a picture of paradoxical embolism. The study work of these patients requires imaging that demonstrates the aforementioned defect, as well as the possible origin of the emboli. Management is based on full anticoagulation, treatment of existing thrombotic manifestations, and management of the anatomical defect. Conclusions. Paradoxical embolism should be suspected in case of unusual thrombosis. It requires exhaustive studies based on imaging, and management should consist of anticoagulation and closure of the defect.

Avaliação Ecocardiográfica de Pacientes com Forame Oval Patente e Acidente Vascular Cerebral Criptogênico / Echocardiographic Evaluation of Patients with Patent Foramen Ovale and Cryptogenic Stroke

Recentes estudos indicaram que o forame oval patente (FOP) pode ser responsável pelo acidente vascular cerebral criptogênico (AVC) em pacientes jovens que apresentam condições anatômicas favoráveis a essa anomalia e que a oclusão transcateter reduz a incidência do acidente vascular cerebral quando comparada ao tratamento clínico. A injeção de soro agitado durante o estudo ecocardiográfico, associada à manobra de Valsalva, pode evidenciar shunt direita-esquerda com alta sensibilidade (89%) e especificidade (92%) quando se utiliza o ecocardiograma transesofágico. Avaliando as características clínicas de pacientes com acidente vascular cerebral e forame oval patente, o trial Risk of Paradoxical Embolism, conhecido pela sigla RoPE, (Risk of Paradoxical Embolism) estabeleceu um escore de risco para acidente vascular cerebral criptogênico e, por meio de um modelo de regressão multivariada, identificou seis variáveis: idade, presença de isquemia cortical, diabetes, hipertensão, AVC e acidente isquêmico transitório prévio. Os escores mais elevados foram observados em jovens com AVC e sem fatores de risco vascular e os escores mais baixos em idosos com fatores de risco vascular, de modo que o forame oval patente sugere ser acidental. Condições anatômicas do FOP predispõem à embolia sistêmica (separação do FOP > 2 mm; túnel do FOP > 10 mm; ângulo entre a veia cava inferior e o flap do FOP <10°; intensidade do shunt com manobra de Valsalva; presença de aneurisma do septo interatrial e rede de Chiari ou válvula de Eustáquio proeminente). O fechamento do FOP pode prevenir a embolia paradoxal, reduzindo a incidência de acidente vascular cerebral em pacientes considerados com de risco elevado. A relação entre Acidente Vascular Cerebral (AVC) criptogênico e a presença de Forame Oval Patente (FOP) tem despertado particular interesse, baseada em estudos recentes que demonstraram que a oclusão transcateter do FOP reduziu a incidência de AVC criptogênico, quando comparado ao tratamento medicamentoso.1 Trombos atravessando o forame oval podem ser observados em exames ecocardiográficos e em autópsias, confirmando esse mecanismo como responsável pela embolia paradoxal, ou seja, um trombo venoso passando para a circulação arterial por um shunt direita-esquerda. Entretanto, essa visualização ecocardiográfica é rara e existem poucos estudos publicados2,3 (Figura 1). Alguns estudos clínicos demonstram a propensão do FOP ser o responsável pela embolia paradoxal. Pacientes portadores de diabetes, hipertensão arterial sistêmica e doença arterial coronária têm baixa prevalência para o FOP ser o responsável pela embolia paradoxal. Por outro lado, história de trombose venosa profunda, embolia pulmonar, hipertensão pulmonar, viagens prolongadas, manobra de Valsalva precedendo o início de sintomas de AVC, enxaqueca e apneia do sono tem sido descrita como fatores de risco independentes para a associação entre FOP e eventos cerebrovasculares.4 Mesmo sendo pouco frequente a visualização de trombos em forame oval, a observação epidemiológica nos leva a acreditar que o FOP é o responsável por um número considerável de acidentes vasculares cerebrais.5 A prevalência de FOP em um estudo com autópsia em 965 corações normais é de 27%, com similar distribuição entre homens e mulheres. Essa prevalência declina com a idade, sendo de 34% em menores de 30 anos, 25% entre 30 e 80 anos e 20% em maiores de 80 anos.6 Em pacientes com AVC criptogênico, entretanto, a prevalência é particularmente elevada, chegando a 40% em pacientes com idade inferior a 55 anos.7 É importante ressaltar que a presença de FOP em pacientes com AVC criptogênico não é a única etiologia para o embolismo paradoxal. Outros mecanismos podem ser responsáveis, como fibrilação atrial não detectada, tumores cardíacos (mixoma e fibroeslastomas), presença de contraste ecocardiográfico espontâneo em átrio esquerdo, valvopatia mitral reumática, calcificação do anel valvar mitral, próteses cardíacas biológicas e mecânicas, estados de hipercoagulabilidade e ateroma de aorta ascendente.8 O estudo ecocardiográfico é parte da rotina na avaliação do FOP, principalmente o Ecocardiograma Transesofágico (ETE) com utilização de solução salina agitada (macrobolhas). Considera-se um shunt pequeno quando passam de três a dez bolhas, médio de dez a 30 bolhas e grande se mais de 30 bolhas contadas nos primeiros batimentos após a injeção.9 Além da detecção do shunt, o ETE avalia as características anatômicas do FOP, assim como o diagnóstico diferencial com a comunicação interatrial e com o shunt pulmonar.10,11 Trabalhos comparando o ETE utilizando macrobolhas com os achados de autópsia mostram sensibilidade de 89% e especificidade de 92%, sendo que a autópsia é considerada padrão-ouro.12(AU)

Oclusão arterial aguda consequente a embolia paradoxal - relato de caso e revisão de literatura / Acute arterial occlusion resulting from paradoxical embolism - case report and literature review

Resumo A embolia paradoxal é a transposição de um trombo originário da circulação sistêmica venosa para a arterial através de um defeito cardíaco, mais comumente o forame oval pérvio (FOP). A manifestação mais comum é o acidente cerebrovascular. A oclusão arterial aguda (OAA) é rara, requer alta suspeição diagnóstica e corresponde a menos de 2% de todos casos de embolia arterial. O tromboembolismo pulmonar (TEP) é a causa mais comum de elevação temporária do shunt direita-esquerda em pacientes com FOP e ocorre em pelo menos 60% dos casos de embolia paradoxal. Em 2019, um homem de 27 anos, sem fator para hipercoagulabilidade, deu entrada no Hospital Universitário do ABC, com quadro de OAA grau I Rutherford em membros inferiores secundária a tromboembolismo através de FOP prévio não diagnosticado, associado a trombose venosa profunda de membro inferior direito e TEP bilateral. O manejo incluiu anticoagulação plena e encaminhamento para cirurgia cardíaca.

Resumo A embolia paradoxal é a transposição de um trombo originário da circulação sistêmica venosa para a arterial através de um defeito cardíaco, mais comumente o forame oval pérvio (FOP). A manifestação mais comum é o acidente cerebrovascular. A oclusão arterial aguda (OAA) é rara, requer alta suspeição diagnóstica e corresponde a menos de 2% de todos casos de embolia arterial. O tromboembolismo pulmonar (TEP) é a causa mais comum de elevação temporária do shunt direita-esquerda em pacientes com FOP e ocorre em pelo menos 60% dos casos de embolia paradoxal. Em 2019, um homem de 27 anos, sem fator para hipercoagulabilidade, deu entrada no Hospital Universitário do ABC, com quadro de OAA grau I Rutherford em membros inferiores secundária a tromboembolismo através de FOP prévio não diagnosticado, associado a trombose venosa profunda de membro inferior direito e TEP bilateral. O manejo incluiu anticoagulação plena e encaminhamento para cirurgia cardíaca.

Historia natural del cierre percutáneo de foramen oval permeable / Natural history of patent foramen ovales closure

INTRODUCCIÓN: El cierre percutáneo del foramen oval permeable (FOP) se ha posicionado como el tratamiento de elección para la prevención secundaria de pacientes con infartos encefálicos (IE) criptogénicos asociados a FOP. OBJETIVO: Revisar los cierres de FOP realizados en nuestra institución, evaluando las características clínicas y del procedimiento, los resultados a mediano plazo luego del procedimiento y la tendencia en el número de intervenciones durante el período estudiado. MÉTODOS: Se incluyeron 101 pacientes consecutivos en que se realizó cierre de FOP, con una mediana de seguimiento de 4,6 años. Se analizaron las características basales de los pacientes, la indicación del cierre de FOP, el éxito del procedimiento y la presencia de shunt residual en ecocardiografía al año. Se realizó una encuesta telefónica estructurada a todos los pacientes, en la cual se preguntó por nuevo IE o crisis isquémica transitoria (CIT), otros eventos cardiovasculares y la presencia de sangrados. El seguimiento fue completado en el 95%. Se calculó el puntaje RoPE ("Risk of Paradoxical Embolism") el cual provee una estimación de la posibilidad de que ese IE se haya debido al FOP y del riesgo de repetir un nuevo IE en caso de no cerrar el FOP para cada paciente. RESULTADOS: La edad promedio fue de 49,1±13,7 años, con 53% mujeres. Sólo en 3 pacientes se diagnosticó una trombofilia. En 96 pacientes la indicación fue para prevención de embolía paradojal e IE (74% IE, 17% CIT y 4% embolía periférica), mientras que en 5% por síndrome de ortodeoxia/platipnea. El cierre de FOP fue exitoso en todos los pacientes. Shunt residual en ecocardiograma al año se observó en 5% - ninguno de estos pacientes presentó un nuevo evento encefálico durante el seguimiento. Se registraron 2 nuevos IE (4 IE por 1000 pacientes/año) y 1 nueva CIT (2 CIT por 1000 pacientes/año) en el seguimiento, con un promedio de presentación de 3,6 años post procedimiento. Esta tasa de eventos fue significativamente menor a lo predicho por el puntaje RoPE en nuestra cohorte. Se observó un marcado aumento en el número de procedimientos desde el año 2017 en adelante. CONCLUSIONES: En nuestra cohorte, el cierre de FOP fue un procedimiento exitoso y seguro. Se asoció a una baja tasa de nuevos eventos cerebrales, marcadamente menor a lo estimado por el puntaje de riesgo actualmente disponible (RoPE).

INTRODUCTION: The percutaneous closure of a patent foramen ovale (PFO) has been established as the preferred treatment for those with an ischemic stroke (IS) and associated PFO. AIMS: To review the PFO closure experience at our institution, characterizing the patients and procedures, mid-term results and the trend in the number of interventions during the study period. METHODS: One hundred and one consecutive patients undergoing PFO closure were included, with a median follow-up of 4.6 years. Baseline demographics, PFO closure indications, procedural success rates and residual shunt at 1-year were recorded. A telephonic survey was performed to complete follow-up, asking for new IS or transient ischemic attacks (TIA), other cardiovascular events and bleeding. Follow-up was completed by 95%. The RoPE score was calculated for each patient, providing an estimate of the chance a given IS being due to a PFO and the risk of a new event when the defect is not closed. RESULTS: Mean age was 49.1±13.7 years and 53% were females. Whereas the indication for PFO closure was paradoxical embolism in 96 patients (74% IS, 17% TIA and 4% peripheral embolism), in 5 it was for platypnea-orthodeoxia syndrome. All patients had a successful PFO closure procedure. Residual shunt at 1 year was found in 5% - yet, none of these patients experienced a new stroke during the study period. During follow-up there were 2 new IS (4 IS per 1,000 patients/year) and 1 new TIA (2 TIA per 1,000 patients/year), with a mean incidence time of 3.6 years after the procedure. This rate of new events was significantly lower than the one predicted by the RoPE score. From 2017 onwards, there was a marked increase in the number of procedures performed at our institution. CONCLUSION: In this cohort, PFO closure was a successful and safe procedure. It was associated to a low rate of new cerebral events during mid-term follow-up, markedly lower than the RoPE predicted rate.

Trombo a través de foramen oval permeable: embolia paradojal cerebral y factores de alto riesgo de recurrencia. Caso clínico / Paradoxical embolism due to a persistent patent foramen ovale: report of one case

Abstract: Patent Foramen Ovale (PFO) is one of the most frequent congenital defects in adults. Its prevalence in middle-aged adults is close to 25-30% and may cause paradoxical embolic phenomena. We report a 45 years old male admitted for an ischemic stroke with an occlusion of the left terminal internal carotid artery. A thrombectomy was performed. Searching for possible sources of emboli, a patent foramen ovale was detected in an echocardiography, with an hypoechogenic examination image passing through it. Anticoagulant therapy was started and the patient had an uneventful evolution.

Massive Pulmonary Embolism with Thrombus-in-Transit Entrapped by a Patent Foramen Ovale / 대한내과학회지

“Thrombus-in-transit” in pulmonary embolism is associated with high mortality and refers to a free-floating clot in the right atrium or right ventricle, indicating that deep vein thrombosis is present en route to the pulmonary artery. Thrombus entrapped in a patent foramen ovale (PFO) is a rare condition and is associated with paradoxical systemic embolism. Here, we report a case of acute pulmonary embolism with thrombus-in-transit through a PFO in a 68-year-old woman with a diagnosis of metastatic pancreatic cancer undergoing palliative chemotherapy. She presented with syncope after acute onset of exertional dyspnea and was diagnosed with cardiogenic shock due to massive pulmonary embolism with thrombus-in-transit on admission to the emergency room. We treated her with systemic thrombolysis and anticoagulation therapy instead of surgical thrombectomy. We show that hemodynamically unstable pulmonary embolism with thrombus-in-transit entrapped by a PFO may be successfully treated with systemic thrombolysis without paradoxical embolism.

Embolismo o embolia, Embolismo paradójico o embolia paradójica / Embolism or embolia, Paradox embolism or paradogic embolia

El diccionario de la Real Academia de la Lengua Española (1) tiene varias acepciones para la palabra embolismo, a saber: Añadidura de ciertos días para igualar el año de una especia con el de otra, como el lunar y el civil con los solares 1. Confusión, enredo o dificulta en un negocio 2. Mezclas y confusión de muchas cosas 3. Embuste chisme El mismo diccionario tiene una palabra similar, embolia. La definición de esta es: Obstrucción ocasionada por un émbolo formado en un vaso sanguíneo, que impide la circulación en otro vaso menor. En el último número de Acta Médica Colombiana Bastidas y colaboradores presentan en la sesión de "Imágenes en medicina interna" un caso ilustrativo de embolia paradójica, Sin embargo, titulan el manuscrito "Embolismo paradójico". Esto refleja el uso común y erróneo de la palabra embolismo en el quehacer médico. Por ejemplo, en el sitio electrónico de Acta Médica Colombiana, una búsqueda con la palabra clave embolia arroja cuatro artículos, pero si se usa la palabra embolismo se encuentran 25 artículos. Creo que este es un llamado de atención al equipo editorial de Acta Médica Colombiana, para que determine que la palabra embolismo sea cambiada por embolia cuando el autor quiera referirse a este fenómeno.

Simultaneous Closure of a Left Atrial Appendage through an Atrial Septal Defect and the Atrial Septal Defect

Left atrial appendage (LAA) occlusion can be employed as an alternative treatment to oral anticoagulation in patients with atrial fibrillation to prevent embolic events. Atrial septal defect (ASD) may be related with right heart dysfunction and allow paradoxical embolism to occur. However, occlusion of both LAA through atrial access with ostium secundum ASD and ASD in the same setting is unusual. Therefore, we report a case in which a LAA and an ASD was sequentially occluded.

Trombosis venosa profunda causando embolia pulmonar aguda e infarto cerebral isquémico / Deep vein thrombosis causing pulmonary embolism and ischemic cerebral infarct

En este artículo presentamos el caso de un paciente femenino de 59 años de edad que ingreso al hospital por insuficiencia respiratoria aguda; diagnosticada con trombosis venosa profunda (TVP) y tromboembolia pulmonar (TEP) masiva. Al cuarto día de admisión desarrolló afasia global y hemiplejia derecha. Imagen de resonancia magnética (IRM) del cerebro demuestra un infarto cerebral agudo en el territorio de la arteria cerebral media izquierda. La Ecografía trans-esofágica evidencia un foramen ovale permeable de 1.8 cm de diámetro con una derivación de flujo arterio-venosa de derecha a izquierda significativo. La paciente fue sometida al cierre del defecto cardiaco por cateterismo con resultados favorables sin recurrencia de infartos cerebrales posteriores. También revisamos la literatura sobre embolia paradójica como causa de infartos cerebrales y brindamos algunas recomendaciones para el manejo y prevención de infartos cerebrales criptogénicos.

Herein, we present a case of a 59 years old woman who was admitted to the hospital due to respiratory failure. She was diagnosed with deep vein thrombosis and massive pulmonary embolism. At the fourth day of admission she developed acute onset of global aphasia and dense acute right hemiplegia. Magnetic resonance imaging demonstrates an acute infarct in the left medial cerebral artery territory. Transesophageal echocardiogram found a large patent foramen ovale of 1.8 cm of diameter with a large right to left shunting. Patient underwent to successful closure of the defect via cardiac catheterization with no recurrence of embolic events. We also review the literature of paradoxical embolus as a cause of cerebral infarcts and provide some recommendations for treatment and prevention of cryptogenic infarcts.

Association of Left Atrial Enlargement with Cortical Infarction in Subjects with Patent Foramen Ovale / 대한뇌졸중학회지

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Left atrial dysfunction has been reported in patients with patent foramen ovale (PFO). Here we investigated the role of left atrial dysfunction in the development of embolic stroke in patients with PFO. METHODS: We identified consecutive patients with embolic stroke of undetermined sources except for PFO (PFO+ESUS). Healthy subjects with PFO served as controls (PFO+control). A stratified analysis by 10-year age group and an age- and sex- matching analysis were performed to compare echocardiographic markers between groups. In the PFO+ESUS group, infarct patterns of PFO-related stroke were determined (cortical vs. cortico-subcortical) and analyzed in correlation with left atrial function parameters. RESULTS: A total of 118 patients and 231 controls were included. The left atrial volume indices (LAVIs) of the PFO+ESUS patients were higher than those of the PFO+controls in age groups of 40–49, 50–59, and 60–69 years (P28 mL/m2) LAVI was more associated with the cortical infarct pattern (P=0.043 for an acute infarction and P=0.024 for a chronic infarction, both adjusted for age and shunt amount). The degree of right-to-left shunting was not associated with infarct patterns, but with the posterior location of acute infarcts (P=0.028). CONCLUSIONS: Left atrial enlargement was associated with embolic stroke in subjects with PFO. Left atrial physiology might contribute to the development of PFO-related stroke and need to be taken into consideration for optimal prevention of PFO-related stroke.

Aneurisma venoso primario de la vena safena: presentación de un caso / Primary Venous Aneurysms of the Saphenous Vein: Case Report

Los aneurismas venosos primarios son lesiones infrecuentes, en la mayoría de los casos asintomáticas y subdiagnosticadas, que deben considerarse al plantear el diagnóstico diferencial de masas inguinales. Se presenta el caso de una paciente de 41 años de edad con sensación de masa inguinal izquierda de un año de evolución, a la cual se le diagnosticó aneurisma venoso primario con base en los hallazgos de la ecografía Doppler color. El aneurisma venoso primario requiere tratamiento quirúrgico para evitar complicaciones y la ecografía Doppler color es el método de elección para confirmar el diagnóstico y descartar otros procesos patológicos.

Primary venous aneurysms are rare lesions, in most cases asymptomatic and underdiagnosed that must be considered in the differential diagnoses of inguinal masses. We report the case of a 41 year old female patient with a one year history of a left inguinal mass, which was reported with a primary venous aneurysm based in the findings of a duplex ultrasonography. Venous primary aneurysm requires surgical treatment to avoid complications, and the duplex ultrasonography is the method of choice to confirm diagnosis and rule out other diseases.

Severe infective endocarditis with systemic embolism due to community associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus ST630

Community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) are increasingly causing infective endocarditis over the past decade. Here we report a healthy man who developed a severe acute infective endocarditis with systemic embolism caused by CA- MRSA. The strain was recovered from repeated blood cultures and was characterized using molecular detection and genotyping. The S. aureus isolate was typed as ST630 SCCmecV with spa-type t4549, agrI/IV and was PVL-negative. This is the only case report, to our knowledge, of CA-MRSA infective endocarditis in China. This case highlights the emergence and geographical spread of life-threatening CA-MRSA infection within China.

Perioperative Challenges and Strategies for Patent Foramen Ovale Patients Undergoing Non-cardiac Surgery / 中国医学科学院学报

The close relationship between patent foramen ovale(PFO)and cryptogenic ischemic cerebrovascular disease and migraine has been concerned for years. However,in the field of non-cardiac surgery and anesthesiology, PFO and related clinical problems are less recognized. Under perioperative circumstances,PFO may generate many challenges such as paradoxical systematic embolism and severe hypoxemia. This article briefly introduces the epidemiology, paradoxical embolism, and detection methods of PFO and discribes the perioperative complications and corresponding perioperative strategies for prevention and cure.

Recurrent Embolic Stroke due to Atrial Septal Defect without Pulmonary Hypertension

No abstract available.

Unusual paradoxical embolic stroke in a patient with persistent left superior vena cava / 영남의대학술지

Cardiogenic embolic stroke accounts for approximately 20% of ischemic strokes and the likelihood of its recurrence is high. Paradoxical embolism may be an important cause of cardioembolic stroke, which can be evaluated through multiple diagnostic modalities including transesophageal echocardiography (TTE) or transcranial Doppler. A persistent left superior vena cava (PLSVC) is a rare congenital vascular anomaly, which mainly drains to the right atrium via the coronary sinus. Although rare, PLSVC draining into the left heart predisposes the patient to paradoxical embolism through a right-to-left shunt. We report on a 78-year-old female patient with an ischemic stroke associated with PLSVC draining into the left atrium through the pulmonary vein, which was investigated via TTE with an agitated saline test and computed tomography.

Posterior Cerebral Artery Infarction in a Patient with Coexisting Hereditary Hemorrhagic Telangiectasia and Patent Foramen Ovale

Patients with hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT) are at risk of developing pulmonary arteriovenous malformations (pAVMs). Paradoxical embolism may occur through pAVMs or patent foramen ovale (PFO) and lead to cerebral infarction. We present a case of cerebral infarction with both pAVM associated with HHT and PFO. Evidence of a right-to-left shunt can suggest other treatment options for stroke prevention, and patients without evidence of conventional stroke etiologies require a thorough evaluation.

Posterior Cerebral Artery Infarction in a Patient with Coexisting Hereditary Hemorrhagic Telangiectasia and Patent Foramen Ovale

Patients with hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT) are at risk of developing pulmonary arteriovenous malformations (pAVMs). Paradoxical embolism may occur through pAVMs or patent foramen ovale (PFO) and lead to cerebral infarction. We present a case of cerebral infarction with both pAVM associated with HHT and PFO. Evidence of a right-to-left shunt can suggest other treatment options for stroke prevention, and patients without evidence of conventional stroke etiologies require a thorough evaluation.