Spatial-temporal trends in leprosy burden and its associations with socioeconomic and physical geographic factors: results from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of our study was to assess the multiscalar changes in leprosy burden and its associated risk factors over the last three decades. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted an in-depth examination of leprosy's spatial-temporal trends at multiple geographical scale (global, regional, and national), utilizing information from Global Burden of Disease, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD 2019). METHODS: Incidence and the estimated annual percentage change (EAPC) in age-standardized incidence rate (ASIR) of leprosy were determined, with countries categorized based on leprosy incidence changes. We examined socioeconomic and physical geography influences on leprosy incidence via Spearman correlation analysis, using ternary phase diagrams to reveal the synergetic effects on leprosy occurrence. RESULTS: Globally, incident cases of leprosy decreased by 27.86% from 1990 to 2019, with a reduction in ASIR (EAPC = -2.53), yet trends were not homogeneous across regions. ASIR and EAPC correlated positively with sociodemographic index (SDI), and an ASIR growth appeared in high SDI region (EAPC = 3.07). Leprosy burden was chiefly distributed in Tropical Latin America, Oceania, Central Sub-Saharan Africa, and South Asia. Negative correlations were detected between the incidence of leprosy and factors of SDI, GDP per capita, urban population to total population, and precipitation, whereas the number of refugee population, temperature, and elevation showed opposite positive results. CONCLUSIONS: Despite a global decline in leprosy over the past three decades, the disparities of disease occurrence at regional and national scales still persisted. Socioeconomic and physical geographic factors posed an obvious influence on the transmission risk of leprosy. The persistence and regional fluctuations of leprosy incidence necessitate the ongoing dynamic and multilayered control strategies worldwide in combating this ancient disease.

Avaliação clínica do paciente de hanseníase

Este vídeo foi planejado em etapas. As primeiras partes demostram aos profissionais que fazem o primeiro atendimento ao indivíduo com suspeita de hanseníase aspectos principais que não devem ser esquecidos: como acolher para minimizar o estigma relacionado ao diagnóstico da doença; como colher boa história epidemiológica; como realizar o exame físico e fazer palpação dos nervos principais acometidos pela hanseníase; como realizar avaliação de sensibilidade. Nas partes finais, o vídeo tem como objetivo demonstrar como orientar os pacientes com diagnóstico confirmado da doença sobre tratamento, aparecimento de reações e prevenção de incapacidades. O vídeo mostra como avaliar o grau de incapacidade, como identificar sinais de reação, como orientar o paciente a fazer autoavaliação e prevenção de incapacidades. Esperamos com este vídeo prover informações e experiências que facilitem a rotina de atendimento de suspeitos e pacientes de hanseníase

Histoid leprosy: clinical and histopathological analysis of patients in follow-up in University Clinical Hospital of endemic country.

BACKGROUND: Histoid leprosy (HL) is a rare form of lepromatous leprosy, characterized by hyperchromic indurated nodules above normal skin. Its main histopathological aspect is spindle cells. Because it may simulate other aspects, such as dermatofibroma and neurofibroma, histoid leprosy poses itself as a diagnostic challenge. METHODS: This is a retrospective study with all patients having been selected from the leprosy clinic of the Hospital das Clínicas da Universidade de São Paulo from 2006 to 2016. RESULTS: There were 12 patients in this study, eight in the histoid group and four in the lepromatous leprosy group. The prevalence of HL was 1.12% in all leprosy subjects. All individuals from HL group were "de novo" cases, and the histopathological analysis of skin lesions presented spindle cells generating a storiform pattern. Immunohistochemistry for CD68, vimentin, and anti-BCG were positive in all 12 cases. Factor XIIIa was visualized only in the papillary dermis, and S100 protein was negative in all biopsies. Smooth-muscle actin was present in 62.5% of the HL samples. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of HL was similar to previous reports. However, all histoid patients were "de novo" cases, differing from published studies. Fusocellular macrophage transformation could be explained by the differences in cytoskeleton proteins expressed in histoid lesions in comparison to other leprosy variants, with emphasis on vimentin and smooth muscle actin.

Coprevalência de hanseníase em contatos com idade entre 5 e 15 anos no nordeste brasileiro / Coprevalencia de hanseniasis en contactos con edad entre 5 y 15 años en el nordeste brasileño / Hanseniasis coprevalence in contacts with age between 5 and 15 years in the northeast of brazil

Objetivo avaliar a coprevalência da hanseníase em contatos com idade compreendida entre 5 e 15 anos. Método estudo descritivo, com abordagem quantitativa, realizado no período de novembro de 2014 a julho de 2015. A população do estudo foi composta por contatos intradomiciliares e peridomiciliares de pessoas atingidas pela hanseníase, que estivessem na faixa etária de 5 a 15 anos. A amostra estudada foi constituída de 73 contatos. Resultados do total de avaliados, 30 (41,0%) foram intradomiciliares e 43 (59,0%), peridomiciliares. Entre os contatos, 27 (37,0%) foram considerados sintomáticos dermatológicos; destes, 17 (23,3%) suspeitos para hanseníase por apresentarem de uma a oito lesões, sendo a maioria mancha hipocrômica (82,3%). Conclusão entre os contatos examinados neste estudo, com idades compreendidas entre 5 e 15 anos, a coprevalência da hanseníase não foi diagnosticada, mas o número de contatos classificados como suspeitos foi elevado, o que se torna preocupante do ponto de vista epidemiológico.

Objetivo evaluar la coprevalencia de la lepra en contactos con edad comprendida entre 5 y 15 años. Método estudio descriptivo, con abordaje cuantitativo, de noviembre de 2014 a julio de 2015. Población del estudio compuesta por contactos intradomiciliares y peridomiciliares de personas afectadas por la lepra, que estuvieran en el grupo de edad de 5 a 15 años. Muestra estudiada de 73 contactos. Resultados del total de evaluados, 30 (41,0%) fueron intradomiciliares y 43 (59,0%), peridomiciliares. Entre los contactos, 27 (37,0%) fueron considerados sintomáticos dermatológicos; de estos, 17 (23,3%) sospechosos de lepra por presentar de una a ocho lesiones, siendo la mayoría mancha hipocrómica (82,3%). Conclusión entre los contactos examinados en este estudio, con edades entre 5 y 15 años, la coprevalencia de la lepra no fue diagnosticada, pero el número de contactos clasificados como sospechosos fue elevado, lo que se vuelve preocupante desde el punto de vista epidemiológico.

Objective to evaluate the co-prevalence of leprosy in contacts between the ages of 5 and 15 years. Method this is a descriptive study, with a quantitative approach, carried out from November 2014 to July 2015. The study population was composed of intradomiciliary and peridomiciliary contacts of people affected by leprosy who were in the age range of 5 to 15 years. The sample consisted of 73 contacts. Results of the total of evaluated, 30 (41.0%) were intradomiciliary and 43 (59.0%), peridomiciliary. Among the contacts, 27 (37.0%) were considered dermatological symptomatic; Of these, 17 (23.3%) suspected leprosy patients had one to eight lesions, most of them hypochromic spots (82,3%). Conclusion among the contacts examined in this study, aged between 5 and 15 years, the co-prevalence of leprosy was not diagnosed, but the number of contacts classified as suspects was high, which is worrisome from the epidemiological point of view.

Correlation Between the Lauge-Hansen Classification and Ligament Injuries in Ankle Fractures.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the ability of the Lauge-Hansen classification to predict ligament injuries in ankle fractures using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and intraoperative findings. DESIGN: Prospective evaluation in consecutive patients. SETTING: Academic level 1 trauma center. PATIENTS: Three-hundred patients with an operatively treated ankle fracture who met the inclusion and exclusion criteria. INTERVENTION: Injury ankle radiographs were assigned to a Lauge-Hansen classification. MRI scans were obtained to evaluate the syndesmotic and deltoid ligaments. A Lauge-Hansen classification for each patient was recorded based on intraoperative findings. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Comparisons were made between the predicted ankle ligamentous injuries based on radiographic Lauge-Hansen classifications, preoperative MRI analyses, and intraoperative findings. RESULTS: On the basis of the Lauge-Hansen system and injury radiographs, 77% (231/300) were classified as supination external rotation, 13% (40/300) were pronation external rotation, 4% (11/300) were supination adduction, <1% (1/300) was pronation abduction, and 6% (17/300) were not classifiable. Of the 283 fractures that were classified into Lauge-Hansen classes, 266 (94%) had MRI readings of ligamentous injuries consistent with the Lauge-Hansen predictions. Intraoperative findings also highly correlated with the Lauge-Hansen class of ankle fractures, with nearly complete agreement. Comparing MRI and intraoperative findings revealed discrepancies in 6% (16/283) of ankle fracture classifications. CONCLUSIONS: In our large cohort of patients, comparisons between injury radiographs, preoperative MRI, and intraoperative findings suggest that the Lauge-Hansen system is an accurate predictor of ligamentous injuries. The predictions based on the Lauge-Hansen system can be useful for fracture reduction maneuvers and operative planning. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Diagnostic Level II. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Hanseníase: avaliação em contatos intradomiciliares / Leprosy: evaluation in household contacts

INTRODUÇÃO: Os contatos intradomiciliares de hanseníase são meios para a manutenção da endemia. OBJETIVO: Identificar os motivos por que os contatos intradomiciliares não procuraram a Unidade de Saúde da Família (USF) para realização do exame dermatoneurológico, no município de Cajazeiras (PB). MÉTODOS: Pesquisa exploratório-descritiva, com abordagem qualitativa, realizada em três USF do referido município. Os dados foram coletados em entrevista, mediante aplicação de roteiro estruturado, durante visitas domiciliares a 31 contatos de casos de hanseníase; os dados foram tratados por meio da análise de conteúdo de Bardin. RESULTADOS: O principal motivo para a não realização do exame dermatoneurológico foi ausência de sinais e sintomas de hanseníase, e sentimentos como: medo do exame, desconfiança no serviço, dentre outros. CONCLUSÃO: Os contatos intradomiciliares não procuraram a USF para realização do exame dermatoneurológico por falta de informações prestadas pelos profissionais de saúde que os atendem na Estratégia em Saúde da Família.

INTRODUCTION: The household contacts of leprosy are means for the maintenance of the disease. OBJECTIVE: To identify the reasons why household contacts have not sought the Family Health Unit (FHU) for the dermatoneurological exam, in the municipality of Cajazeiras (PB). METHODS: Exploratory descriptive study with a qualitative approach, performed in three FHU of the mentioned municipality. Data were collected through interviews, by applying semi-structured script, during visits to 31 contacts of leprosy cases. The data were treated from Bardin's contentanalysis. RESULTS: The main reason for not performing the dermato-neurological examination was the absence of signs and symptoms of leprosy, and feelings such as fear of examination, distrust of service, among others. CONCLUSION: Household contacts have not sought the Family Health Unit (FHU) for the dermato-neurological exam for lack of information provided by health professionals who serve at the FHS.

A descriptive study to characterize segmental vitiligo.

BACKGROUND: Segmental vitiligo is a small but unique subset of vitiligo requiring due importance due to its lack of response to medical treatment but excellent response to surgical treatment. Characterization of the pattern of segmental vitiligo will also help to understand the pathogenesis of the disease. AIM: To characterize clinically the features of segmental vitiligo, a cross-sectional clinical study at dermatology outpatient department at AIIMS was carried out. METHODS: Consecutive 188 patients were evaluated to characterize the clinical features of segmental vitiligo by detailed history, clinical examination, and photography. Frequency of each clinical feature was calculated. RESULTS: Certain features such as early onset, initial progression of disease followed by stability, blaschkoid pattern, irregular margins, leucotrichia within and beyond the vitiligo lesion, and islands of pigmented macules within the vitiligo lesion were found to be characteristic of the disease. CONCLUSIONS: A combination of various features such as early onset of disease, blaschkoid pattern, irregular margins, leucotrichia, and islands of pigmented macules within the vitiligo lesion are helpful in diagnosis of the disease.

Revalidation of various clinical criteria for the classification of leprosy--a clinic-pathological study.

UNLABELLED: WHO guidelines classify leprosy patients clinically into PB and MB group based on the number of skin lesions (NSL) with > or = 6 skin lesions as a criterion for MB leprosy. Other clinical criteria for classification are based on the number of body areas affected (NBAA) and on size of the largest skin lesions (SLSL). They are also fairly simple and easily practicable in the field. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study is to explore whether sensitivity and specificity of the WHO classification can be improved by addition of clinical criteria based on NBAA and SLSL to WHO classification. STUDY DESIGN: Among 100 newly diagnosed untreated leprosy patients classified into PB and MB group according to WHO classification, the NSL and NBAA were recorded and the size (longest diameter) of largest skin lesion was measured in centimeters. The Receiver Operator Characteristic (ROC) curves were plotted for each parameter to find the best cut off point (with highest sensitivity and specificity). RESULTS: The sensitivity and specificity of the WHO classification tested, using slit-skin smear (SSS) and skin biopsy results as the gold standard, was found to be 63% and 85% respectively. The ROC curve for NSL found the best cut off of three and more lesions for MB group (sensitivity 90% & specificity 80%). Similarly, ROC curves for NBAA and SLSL found the best cut off points for classification into MB group to be two or more (sensitivity 90% & specificity 75%) and 5 cm or more (sensitivity 87% and specificity 65%) respectively. On combining all these criteria together sensitivity was increased to 98.5% with no significant change in specificity, which was 77.5%. CONCLUSION: The study concluded that the sensitivity of the present clinical classification can be further improved by addition of two other clinical criteria.

Syndesmotic fixation in supination-external rotation ankle fractures: a prospective randomized study.

BACKGROUND: This study was designed to assess whether transfixion of an unstable syndesmosis is necessary in supination-external rotation (Lauge-Hansen SE/Weber B)-type ankle fractures. METHODS: A prospective study of 140 patients with unilateral Lauge-Hansen supination-external rotation type 4 ankle fractures was done. After bony fixation, the 7.5-Nm standardized external rotation (ER) stress test for both ankles was performed under fluoroscopy. A positive stress examination was defined as a difference of more than 2 mm side-to-side in the tibiotalar or tibiofibular clear spaces on mortise radiographs. If the stress test was positive, the patient was randomized to either syndesmotic transfixion with 3.5-mm tricortical screws or no syndesmotic fixation. Clinical outcome was assessed using the Olerud-Molander scoring system, RAND 36-Item Health Survey, and Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) to measure pain and function after a minimum 1-year of followup. RESULTS: Twenty four (17%) of 140 patients had positive standardized 7.5-Nm ER stress tests after malleolar fixation. The stress view was positive three times on tibiotalar clear space, seven on tibiofibular clear space, and 14 times on both tibiotalar and tibiofibular clear spaces. There was no significant difference between the two randomization groups with regards to Olerud-Molander functional score, VAS scale measuring pain and function, or RAND 36-Item Health Survey pain or physical function at 1 year. CONCLUSION: Relevant syndesmotic injuries are rare in supination-external rotation ankle fractures, and syndesmotic transfixion with a screw did not influence the functional outcome or pain after the 1-year followup compared with no fixation.

Dermatomiosite ou hanseníase? valorizando o exame físico / Dermatomyositis or hansen’s disease? the value of physical examination

A hanseníase é uma doença infectocontagiosa com várias apresentações clínicas, a depender da resposta imunológica do paciente. Os autores relatam o caso de uma paciente com o diagnóstico clínico e histopatológico iniciais de dermatomiosite que obteve melhora após o uso de corticosteróide sistêmico. Entretanto, uma reavaliação da paciente, com um exame físico minucioso, reorientou o diagnóstico para o correto: hanseníase

Leprosy is an infectious disease with various clinical presentations, depending on the patient’s immune response. The authors report a case of a patient with initial clinical and histopathological diagnosis of dermatomyositis which improved after therapy with systemic corticosteroid. However, a reassessment of the patient, with a careful physical examination, redirected to the correct diagnosis: leprosy

Hanseníase virchowiana pruriginosa em idoso: a importância do exame dermatoneurológico e suspeição diagnóstica / Itching lepromatous leprosy in an elderly man: the importance of dermatologic and neurological examination and the diagnosis' suspicion

INTRODUÇÃO: A hanseníase virchowiana (MHV) polar é forma clínica de diagnóstico mais difícil nas fases iniciais, já que o comprometimento neurológico é tardio e não há presença de placas. Relata-se um caso com sintoma atípico em idoso: o prurido. RELATO DE CASO: Homem, 81 anos, branco, procedente de Itirapina - SP, encaminhado ao serviço de referência com hipótese diagnóstica de "alergia", relatava que há dois anos notou a presença de pápulas, placas e nódulos em corpo, associado a prurido intenso generalizado, mais pronunciado nas lesões. Ao exame físico, havia livedo reticular difuso que poupava a área do polígono de Michaelis, acrocianose, madarose, pápulas, placas e nódulos eritêmato-violáceos em abdome, região perimamilar, membros inferiores e região glútea. Ao exame neurológico, notou-se espessamento de nervos ulnares, radiais, tibiais e fibular esquerdo. Não apresentava garra ulnar e o teste de sensibilidade com monofilamentos não demonstrou perda da sensibilidade tátil nas mãos ou protetora nos pés. A baciloscopia de pontos índices variou entre de 3 a 5+, com índice morfológico de 3%. O teste de Mitsuda foi negativo, e a biópsia de uma das lesões evidenciou MHV. DISCUSSÃO: A MHV polar constitui-se na forma mais bacilífera e de maior dificuldade diagnóstica, quando não se faz a suspeição. A virtual ausência de imunidade permite que o bacilo prolifere na célula nervosa por quase uma década, em média, sem que haja sintomas característicos (nódulos, "manchas", neurite ou deformidades). Embora seja sintoma atípico, a xerose cutâneo-mucosa pode causar prurido, e o comprometimento neurovascular leva ao livedo reticular e acrocianose, sinais que devem alertar o clínico para a suspeita diagnóstica,...

INTRODUCTION: Polar lepromatous leprosy (LLp) is a clinical form which the diagnosis is very difficult in early stages, since nerve damage is not seen, and there are not visible plaques. We report a case with atypical symptoms in an elderly man: the pruritus.CASE REPORT: Male, 81 years, caucasian, coming from Itirapina - SP, referred to the dermatological service with the diagnosis of "allergy", reported that two years ago noted the presence of papules, plaques and nodules on the body, associated with intense pruritus, more pronounced on the lesions. Physical examination revealed diffuse livedo (which was not seen only on the area of the Michaelis polygon), as weel as acrocyanosis, madarosis, papules, plaques, and erythematous-violaceous nodules on the abdomen, perimamilar region, legs and buttocks. On neurological examination it was noted nerves thickening: both ulnars, radials, tibials, and left fibular. He had no ulnar claw and sensitivity test monofilaments showed no loss of tactile sensitivity on the hands, or even loss of protective sensitivity on the feet. Bacilloscopy of smear from index points ranged from 3-5+, with morphological index = 3%. The Mitsuda test was negative, and biopsy of the lesions showed LL.DISCUSSION: The LLp is the most infectious form of leprosy, and it is the most difficult to make diagnosis, mainly when do not suspected. The virtual lack of immunity allows the bacilli proliferate in the nerve cell for nearly a decade, on average, without typical symptoms (lumps, "stains", neuritis or deformities). Although atypical symptom, mucocutaneous xerosis can cause itching, and neurovascular involvement leads to livedo reticularis and acrocyanosis, signs that should alert the clinician to the diagnosis,...

Health assessment of free-ranging three-banded (Tolypeutes matacus) and nine-banded (Dasypus novemcinctus) armadillos in the Gran Chaco, Bolivia.

The Gran Chaco, Bolivia, has a total of seven species of armadillos with the three-banded (Tolypeutes matacus) and nine-banded (Dasypus novemcinctus) the most commonly hunted by the local Isoseño-Guarani people. Armadillos are known carriers of zoonotic pathogens, including Mycobacterium leprae, Toxoplasma gondii, and Trypanosoma cruzi; thus human handling and consumption of these species may have a significant public health impact. A health assessment that included physical examinations, hematology, plasma biochemical analyses, levels of exposure to selected infectious agents, and endoparasite and ectoparasite identification was performed on nine-banded and three-banded armadillos in the Gran Chaco, Bolivia. Based on clinical findings, the general health of these armadillos was rated as good. However, many of the nine-banded armadillos (64%) had abrasions and wounds, probably related to the capture method. The blood value results from a subset of these armadillos are presented as baseline values for free-ranging populations of both these species in Bolivia. Serologic antibody tests for M. leprae were negative in three-banded (n = 8) and nine-banded (n = 2) armadillos. Three-banded armadillos were antibody positive for Eastern equine encephalitis virus (8/8; 100%) and Saint Louis encephalitis virus (5/8; 62.5%). Two of 12 (16.7%) three-banded armadillos tested were antigen positive for Dirofilaria immitis. Nine-banded armadillos were antibody positive for T. gondii (3/9; 33.3%), Eastern equine encephalitis virus (5/8; 62.5%), and T. cruzi (2/9; 22.2%). Two of eight (25%) nine-banded armadillos were antigen positive for D. immitis. A number of endo- and ectoparasites were identified in/on both species of armadillos. Results from this study support the possibility that the handling and consumption of these species by the local Isoseño-Guarani people may have a public health impact.

Leg length discrepancies in adult femoral shaft fractures treated with intramedullary nailing.

BACKGROUND: To evaluate the leg length discrepancy (LLD) retrospectively in adult femoral shaft fractures treated with intramedullary nailing (IMN). METHODS: Sixty-three patients (58 male, 5 female; mean age 29.9+/-12.4; range 15 to 77 years) were included in the study. Fractures were identified according to the Winquist-Hansen (W) system and AO classification. 16 W0, 18 WI, 16 WII, 7 WIII, and 6 WIV fractures and 35 type A, 22 type B, and 6 type C fractures were repaired. Thirty-one (49.2%) patients had multiple injuries. Fourteen patients sustained an open fracture. LLDs were measured on physical examination and using orthoroentgenography. RESULTS: The mean follow-up was 90.2+/-29.9 (39-193) months. The mean LLD was 12.3+/-15.2 [12-(-60)] mm using orthoroentgenography and 12.9+/-13.7 [10-(-60)] mm according to manual measurement. In seven cases, no LLD was observed. Twenty-seven shortenings and one lengthening were observed in the 28 femurs with a discrepancy greater than 10 mm (44.4%). There was no statistical correlation between LLD and open or closed fracture (r=0.02, p=0.86), polytrauma (r=-0.09, p=0.47), or delayed surgery (p=0.31), but there was a tendency to a greater discrepancy in comminuted fractures (WIII, IV) (r=0.33, p=0.007). CONCLUSION: LLD may be seen in high rates in adult femoral shaft fracture cases treated with IMN. Static IMN following absolute restoration of the length may prevent this problem in femoral diaphysis fractures, especially comminuted WIII and IV types.

Histopathological lesions of apparently normal skin in leprosy patients.

This study was carried out on 50 patients with different clinical types of leprosy 38 males (76 % and 12 females (24%), ages ranged from 14 -70 years with a mean age +/- SD 49.22 +/- 12.97 years. Mean disease duration was 5.65 years +/- SD = 9.27 selected to study a group of leprosy patients and compare the clinical parameters with histopathological findings and bacteriologic status of the skin to evaluate the relevance of their patients. Patients were subjected to full medical history taking including disease duration, type and duration of previous or current therapies. Complete clinical examination, for the determination of the clinical type of leprosy. Skin slit smear (SSS) and skin biopsies were taken and examined after staining for histopathological assessment and Acid fast bacilli (AFB). SPSS package version (statistical Package for Social Sciences) was used for data analysis. The biopsy of normally looking skin showed classic histopathological features of leprosy in more than half of the cases (26 cases, 52%). The histopathological types of leprosy diagnosed in such cases were as follows: indeterminate leprosy (IL) in 4 cases (15.38%), Tuberculoid leprosy (TL) in 2 cases (7.69%), Borderline tuberculoid (BT) in 4 cases (15.38), Borderline Borderline (BB) i.e Query in 8 cases (30.76%), Borderline Lepromatous (BL) in 7 cases (26.92%) and Lepromatous leprosy (LL) in a patient (3.84%). Other 24 cases showed either no evidence of leprosy in (9 cases, 37.5%), or query findings (in the form of sweat gland changes either alone or in combination with thickened nerves and superficial and deep perivascular lymphohistiocytic infiltrate) in 15 cases (62.5%). Histopathology of skin lesion biopsies showed TL in 3 cases (6%), BT in 8 cases (16%), BB in 8 cases (16%), BL in 14 cases (28%), LL in 12 cases (24%) and leprosy in reaction in 5 cases (10%). In 16 cases (32%), histopathological type of leprosy detected by microscopical examination of biopsies from skin lesions differed from that diagnosed by clinical examination.

The validity and reliability of a simple semantic classification of foot posture.

INTRODUCTION: The Simple Semantic Classification (SSC) is described as a pragmatic method to assist in the assessment of the weight bearing foot. It was designed for application by therapists and technicians working in underdeveloped situations, after they have had basic orientation in foot function. OBJECTIVE: To present evidence of the validity and inter observer reliability of the SSC. METHOD: 13 physiotherapists from LEPRA India projects and 12 physical therapists functioning within the National Programme for the Elimination of Hansen's Disease (PNEH), Brazil, participated in an inter-observer exercise. Inter-observer agreement was gauged using the Kappa statistic. The results of the inter-observer exercise were dependent on observations of foot posture made from photographs. This was necessary to ensure that the procedure was standardised for participants in different countries. The method had limitations which were partly reflected in the results. RESULTS: The level of agreement between the principle investigator and Indian physiotherapists was Kappa = 058. The level of agreement between Brazilian physical therapists and the principle investigator was Kappa = 0.70. CONCLUSION: The authors opine that the results were sufficiently compelling to suggest that the Simple Semantic Classification can be used as a field method to identify people at increased risk of foot pathologies.

Clinical diagnosis of leprosy cases.

The principle of leprosy control is based on secondary prevention with early detection of all cases and treatment with multidrug therapy. Eradication of leprosy warrants detection of all cases. Hence diagnosis of leprosy is of paramount importance to eradicate the cases. History taking gives all important information about the patient. Presenting complaint and contacts in family give useful guidelines to clinicians to arrive at the diagnosis. The objective of clinical examination is to elicit cardinal signs of leprosy through a systemic examination. Sensory testing, examination of nerves and examination of hands, feet and eyes are helpful in establishing diagnosis. Laboratory examination is not essential. Slit-skin smear examination for acid-fast bacilli shows positive results in a few cases. Diagnosis is complete once the clinical signs are established through clinical examination.