The medieval Persian manuscript of Afyunieh: the first individual treatise on the opium and addiction in history.

According to historical evidence, the abuse of opium has been reported all over the globe-specifically throughout Eastern nations-since the sixteenth century. Before that, opium had mostly been applied as medication. Reference has been made in traditional Persian medical literature to the method of cultivation, properties, side effects and toxicity. In sixteenth century Iran, during the reign of the Safavids, opium abuse began. It was from then that prominent Persian scholars started to think of solutions to this societal problem. One of the most famous scholars was Imad al-Din Mahmud ibn Mas'ud Shirazi, who composed a book concerning addiction-Afyunieh, a comprehensive book on the topic of opium and all issues of opium. Furthermore, he recommended methods for reducing opium dose as well as substitution with other medications that had a narrower range of side effects, in order to eradicate dependency upon opium and opium-derived materials. This is most likely the first book that comprehensively addressed opium and discussed drug rehabilitation methodology, in traditional Persian medical literature. In this historical review, the authors have introduced the book Afyunieh, which presents methods for treating addiction to and giving up opium; the text comprises a synthesis of the author's opinions, professional experience and references to the work of other famous physicians.

Convenient, Traditional and Alternative Therapies for Cardiovascular Disorders.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are of major causes of death worldwide. Complementary and alternative medicines (CAM) are considered as new sources to find preventive and treatment approaches with mostly a historical perspective. Chinese medicine (CM), Persian medicine (PM), Ayurveda and homeopathy are as most popular traditional systems of medicine among various CAM methods. In this survey, we aimed to review most relevant and approved treatment by current investigations on these CAM systems in the field of CVD to present best traditional remedies and treatment approaches. To this, a search within databases including PubMed, Scopus and Google scholar was performed to find and select traditional approaches for CVD with the help of four CAM systems: CM, PM, Ayurveda and homeopathy. There are numerous cardiovascular and allied complications. Based on the type and group of disorder, the aforementioned complementary and alternative systems of medicine offer convenient and practical treatment approaches which can be considered along with the conventional interventions. Many mono and multi-ingredient preparations have been introduced by those popular systems of medicine. In addition, non-pharmacological treatments such as acupuncture and cupping are reported in some circumstances. Apart from various compound formulations, most of the human studies are limited to the single medicinal plants from modern phytotherapy. Accordingly, more comprehensive assessments are to be performed to distinguish those traditional remedies from popular holistic medical systems.

Medicinal aspects of opium as described in Avicenna's Canon of Medicine.

Throughout history, opium has been used as a base for the opioid class of drugs used to suppress the central nervous system. Opium is a substance extracted from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L.). Its consumption and medicinal application date back to antiquity. In the medieval period, Avicenna, a famous Persian scholar (980-1037 AD) described poppy under the entry Afion of his medical encyclopedia Canon of Medicine. Various effects of opium consumption, both wanted and unwanted are discussed in the encyclopedia. The text mentions the effects of opioids such as analgesic, hypnotic, antitussive, gastrointestinal, cognitive, respiratory depression, neuromuscular disturbance, and sexual dysfunction. It also refers to its potential as a poison. Avicenna describes several methods of delivery and recommendations for doses of the drug. Most of opioid effects described by Avicenna have subsequently been confirmed by modern research, and other references to opium use in medieval texts call for further investigation. This article highlights an important aspect of the medieval history of medicine.