Phase-Transition-Induced Pattern Formation Applied to Basic Research on Homeopathy: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Methods based on phase-transition-induced pattern formation (PTPF) are increasingly used in medical research. Frequent application fields are medical diagnosis and basic research in homeopathy. Here, we present a systematic review of experimental studies concerning PTPF-based methods applied to homeopathy research. We also aimed at categorizing the PTPF methods included in this review. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Experimental studies were collected from scientific databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Russian eLibrary) and from experts in the research field in question, following the PRISMA guidelines. The studies were rated according to pre-defined scientific criteria. RESULTS: The review included 15 experimental studies. We identified seven different PTPF methods applied in 12 experimental models. Among these methods, phase-transition was triggered through evaporation, freezing, or solution, and in most cases led to the formation of crystals. First experimental studies concerning the application of PTPF methods in homeopathic research were performed in the first half of the 20th century; however, they were not continued in the following years. Only in the last decade, different research groups re-launched the idea, introducing new experimental approaches and computerized pattern evaluation techniques. The here-identified PTPF methods are for the first time proposed to be classified as one group of methods based on the same basic physical phenomenon. CONCLUSIONS: Although the number of experimental studies in the area is still rather limited, the long tradition in the application of PTPF methods and the dynamics of the present developments point out the high potential of these methods and indicate that they might meet the demand for scientific methods to study potentized preparations.

Experimental evidence of stable water nanostructures in extremely dilute solutions, at standard pressure and temperature.

This paper presents the results of several experimental methods (FT-IR spectroscopy, UV-vis spectroscopy, fluorescence microscopy (FM), Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)) evidencing structural changes induced in extremely diluted solutions (EDS), which are prepared by an iterated process of centesimal (1:100) dilution and succussion (shaking). The iteration is repeated until an extremely high dilution is reached, so that the composition of the solution becomes identical to that of the solvent--in this case water--used to prepare it. The experimental observations reveal the presence of supramolecular aggregates hundreds of nanometres in size in EDS at ambient pressure and temperature, and in the solid state. These findings confirm the hypothesis--developed thanks to previous physico-chemical investigations--that formation of water aggregates occurs in EDS. The experimental data can be analyzed and interpreted with reference to the thermodynamics of far-from-equilibrium systems and irreversible processes.

[Mathematic modeling and experimental validation of macrostate quality expression for multicomponent in Chinese materia medica].

OBJECTIVE: To establish the unitive multicomponent quality system bridged macrostate mathematic model parameters of material quality and microstate component concentration for Chinese materia medica (CMM). METHOD: According to law of biologic laws of thermodynamics, the state functions of macrostate qulity of the CMM were established. The validation test was carried out as modeling drug as alcohol extract of Radix Rhozome (AERR), their enthalpy of combustion was determined, and entropy and the capability of information by chromatographic fingerprint were assayed, and then the biologic apparent macrostate parameters were calculated. RESULT: The biologic macrostate mathematic models, for the CMM quality controll, were established as parameters as the apparent equilibrium constant, biologic enthalpy, Gibbs free energy and biologic entropy etc. The total molarity for the 10 batchs of AERR were 0.153 4 mmol x g(-1) with 28.26% of RSD, with the average of apparent equilibrium constants, biologic enthalpy, Gibbs free energy and biologic entropy were 0.039 65, 8 005 J x mol(-1), -2.408 x 10(7) J x mol(-1) and - 8.078 x 10(4) J x K(-1) with RSD as 6.020%, 1.860%, 42.32% and 42.31%, respectively. CONCLUSION: The macrostate quality models for CMM can represent their intrinsic quality for multicomponent dynamic system such as the CMM, to manifest out as if the forest away from or tree near from to see it.

The kinetics of competitive antagonism of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors at physiological temperature.

Detailed information about the ligand-binding site of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors has emerged from structural and mutagenesis experiments. However, these approaches provide only static images of ligand-receptor interactions. Kinetic measurements of changes in protein function are needed to develop a more dynamic picture. Previously, we measured association and dissociation rate constants for competitive inhibition of current through embryonic muscle acetylcholine receptor channels at 25 degrees C. Little is known about competitive antagonism at physiological temperatures. Here, we performed measurements at 37 degrees C and used thermodynamics to estimate the energetics of antagonism. We used rapid solution exchange protocols to determine equilibrium and kinetics of inhibition of acetylcholine-activated currents in outside-out patches by (+)-tubocurarine, pancuronium and cisatracurium. Kinetic rates as high as 600 s(-1) were resolved by this technique. Binding was primarily enthalpy driven. The 12 degrees C increase in temperature decreased equilibrium antagonist binding by 1.7- to 1.9-fold. In contrast, association and dissociation rate constants increased 1.9- to 6.0-fold. Activation energies for dissociation were 90 +/- 6, 106 +/- 8 and 116 +/- 10 kJ mol(-1) for cisatracurium, (+)-tubocurarine and pancuronium, respectively. The corresponding apparent activation energies for association were 38 +/- 6, 85 +/- 6 and 107 +/- 13 kJ mol(-1). The higher activation energy for association of (+)-tubocurarine and pancuronium compared with cisatracurium is notable. This may arise from either a more superficial binding site for the large antagonist cisatracurium compared to the other ligands, or from a change in receptor conformation upon binding of (+)-tubocurarine and pancuronium but not cisatracurium. Differences in ligand desolvation and ligand conformation are not likely to be important.

El papel del similimum en la homeopatía / The role of Simillimum in homeopathy

Se ha confirmado que la composición química de Similimum en personas sanas es la misma que la de individuos enfermos. Este es el hallazgo más importante en apoyo de una interpretación termodinámica de la homeopatía y se basa en la curación de pacientes con similimum con respecto al equilibrio químico en personas enfermas. La composición química de similimum no es necesaria para un tratamiento en la homeopatía. Todo lo que se requiere es la misma composición química entre las dos moléculas objetivo. Conocer la composición química de las moléculas que causan enfermedades solo es relevante en el caso de buscar un compuesto que pueda actuar como un similimum

It has been confirmed that the chemical composition of Similimum in healthy people is the same as that in diseased individuals. This is the most important finding in support of a thermodynamic interpretation of homeopathy and is based on the healing of patients with Similimum regarding the chemical equilibrium in diseased people. The chemical composition of Simillimum is not required for a treatment in homeopathy. All that is required is the same chemical composition between the two target molecules. Knowing the chemical composition of disease-causing molecules is only relevant in the case of searching for a compound that could act as a Simillimum

[Comparison of properties of Mahuang decoction and Maxing Shigan decoction based on biothermodynamics].

OBJECTIVE: To probe into the objectivity and authenticity of four properties beteen Mahuang decoction and Maxing Shigan decoction from biothermodynamics. METHOD: The power-time curves of growth of Staphylococcus aureus at different concentrations between Mahuang decoction and Maxing Shigan decoction were determined by TAM Air Isothermal Calorimeter. The growth rate constants of promotive and inhibitory actions were calculated. Moreover, the difference of properties beteen Mahuang decoction and Maxing Shigan decoction was analyzed from the point of view of TCM theory. RESULT: Both the Mahuang decoction and Maxing Shigan decoction could inhibit the growth and metabolism of Staphylococcus aureus. The k and Pm were decreased with the mass increase of the decoction. However, inhibitory activity of Mahuang decoction with warm property was weaker than that of Maxing Shigan decoction with cool property. Moreover, Mahuang decoction decreased heat output in growth metabolism more weakly than Maxing Shigan decoction. There was a stable difference between them. CONCLUSION: Studying on biothermodynamics can show the difference of four properties of Traditional Chinese Medicine. So, it provides a new and useful means for the study of the properties of traditional Chinese medicine.

UNA NUEVA EXPLICACIÓN DE LA HOMEOPATÍA / A NEW EXPLANATION OF HOMEOPATHY

Este artículo cubre los conceptos básicos de un nuevo modelo de homeopatía que se basa en la termodinámica química. La equivalencia entre el compuesto que causa la enfermedad en una persona saludable y el compuesto que causa la enfermedad en una persona enferma, lo que llevó a esta interpretación del nuevo modelo de homeopatía, está bien considerado. Se han considerado el mecanismo de curación, la Ley de los Similares y la Ley de los Infinitesimales. Este artículo también analiza los conceptos básicos del mecanismo de dilución y su influencia en la concentración final de moléculas de remedio en soluciones homeopáticas. El número máximo de pasos sucesivos que impliquen una molienda vigorosa y se consideró la dilución donde todavía es posible la existencia de una concentración terapéutica.

Tis article covers the basics of a new model of homeopathy that is grounded in chemical thermodynamics. Te equivalence between the disease-causing compound in a heathy person and the disease-causing compound in an ill person, which led to this interpretation of the new model of homeopathy, is well considered. Te mechanism of curing, the Law of Similars, and the Law of Infinitesimals were considered. Tis article also discusses the basics of the dilution mechanism and its influence on the final concentration of remedy molecules in homeopathic solutions. Te maximum number of succession steps involving vigorous grinding and dilution where the existence of a therapeutic concentration is still possible was considered

On chemical medicine, thermodynamics, and homeopathy.

The author indicates why homeopathic medicine is an example of future information medicine, a member of the more general psychophysiologic medicine group. Using standard chemical thermodynamics, it is readily shown that the driving force for all chemical reactions involves the logarithm of chemical activities for the different species involved. Because chemical activity is given by the product of concentration and thermodynamic activity coefficient, such reaction driving forces involve the sum of ln gamma ( j ) and ln c(j) for the j-species. Homeopathy involves the dilution of cj and succussion, which can increase gamma (j) ; thus, when c(j) goes to the ultradilution state, the thermodynamic driving force for change does not disappear as is assumed by many and, in fact, can even increase through the ln gamma ( j ) terms. Going to a more complex reference frame for viewing nature, one can, at least, qualitatively show how oscillating and decaying properties in time can occur for homeopathic remedies.

[Homeopathy and structure of water: a physical model]. / Homöopathie und Wasserstruktur: Ein physikalisches Modell.

BACKGROUND: Formerly, the author has suggested a relatively simple water model. There, the dynamical structure of a typical water cluster was investigated, being represented by the movement of a ball in an abstract energy landscape. OBJECTIVE: Now the above-mentioned model is investigated in more detail to answer the following question: Are essential claims of homeopathy concerning potentiation (diluting and shaking) in agreement with science? METHODS: Equations of motion are employed that represent vibrations of clusters. For the computer experiments, the formalism of Nosé-Hoover is used, the surrounding water being interpreted as a heat bath. Diluting corresponds to a shift of the energy landscape towards the pure solvent (water), shaking is accompanied by an increase of the contact to the heat bath. RESULTS: There is a tendency of the ball to be caught in local valleys of the energy landscape (metastable states) if the temperature is not too high and if the liquid is not shaken. Thus, even for a given landscape there are a variety of structures being durable for some time. CONCLUSIONS: The computer experiments suggest that the repeated process of potentiation eventually results in a specific metastable state of the pure solvent. The initial substance helps to obtain this goal, but is no longer necessary at last.

The living matter according to Ervin Bauer (1890-1938), (on the 75th anniversary of his tragic death) (History).

Ervin Bauer is one of the first theoretical biologists distancing his ideas both from vitalism and mechanicism. He formulated the principle of permanent non-equilibrium of living systems (Bauer's principle) in terms of thermodynamics in 1920. Bauer's scientific path can be divided into three periods. In the early 1920s he proposed his principle as an axiom that cannot be derived from contemporary natural sciences. In the late 1920s he reformulated it in a way that it could be subjected to experimental testing. Summarizing his views in the 1930s in his book, Theoretical Biology, he tried to show that his axiom is indeed the fundamental principle of biology. This later view was anachronistic in spite of many striking insights of Bauer. The energetic formulation of Bauer's principle is, however, a realistic characterization of living organisms and it can be derived from the theory of open systems - in fact it contributed to the formulation of that theory. Bauer's principle can be incorporated into non-linear thermodynamics of irreversible processes.

On understanding the very different science premises meaningful to CAM versus orthodox medicine: Part II--applications of Part I fundamentals to five different space-time examples.

In Part I of this pair of articles, the fundamental experimental observations and theoretical perspectives were provided for one to understand the key differences between our normal, uncoupled state of physical reality and the human consciousness-induced coupled state of physical reality. Here in Part II, the thermodynamics of complementary and alternative medicine, which deals with the partially coupled state of physical reality, is explored via the use of five different foci of relevance to today's science and medicine: (1) homeopathy; (2) the placebo effect; (3) long-range, room temperature, macroscopic size-scale, information entanglement; (4) an explanation for dark matter/energy plus human levitation possibility; and (5) electrodermal diagnostic devices. The purpose of this pair of articles is to clearly differentiate the use and limitations of uncoupled state physics in both nature and today's orthodox medicine from coupled state physics in tomorrow's complementary and alternative medicine.

Long term structural effects in water: autothixotropy of water and its hysteresis.

We discovered a previously unknown phenomenon in liquid water, which develops over time when water is left to stand undisturbed, and which made precise gravimetric measurement impossible. We term this property autothixotropy (weak gel-like behaviour developing spontaneously over time) and propose a possible explanation. The results of quantitative measurements, performed by two different methods, are presented. We also report the newly discovered phenomenon of autothixotropy-hysteresis and describe the dependence of autothixotropy on the degree of molecular translative freedom. A very important conclusion is that the presence of very low concentration of salt ions, these phenomena do not occur in deionized water. Salt ions may be the determinative condition for the occurrence of the phenomena.

[Relations of physicalism and vitalism in biology: contribution to the year of Darwin 1982]. / Zum Verhältnis von Physikalismus and Vitalismus in der Biologie: Ein Beitrag zum Darwin-Jahr 1982.

With help by an axiom established and some descriptions before this paper, it is possible to model successful processes of growth. In this description, it will be tried to explain in generally form this axiom and to classify it into our scientific system of world. With that comes a dialectical relation between Physicalism and Vitalism. Both continuous and statistical methods are known as possible and necessary forms of description of biological processes. By that the method of Newton can be transferred analogous into Biology with help from the field of information definited before this paper. The developed theoretical conceptions for analysis of growth are conformed also with the demands of system theory by v. Bertalanffy and they will derivated also from his system theory. This work will be finished with firstly ideas for application of this results and with relations of this theory and dialectic.

El origen de la Psora / The origin of the psora

The second principle of Thermodynamics describes that physical systems in the Universe have a basic tendency toward disorder and coldness called Entropy. The Miasmas, like a tendency toward disease and death, are the manifestation in human beings of the second principle of thermodynamics

La homeopatía vista desde la Teoría General de Sistemas de Ludwig Von Bertalanffy / The homeopathy seen from the General Theory of Sistems of Ludwig Von Bertalanffy

A lo largo de doscientos años la Homeopatía ha tolerado el ser considerada una disciplina no científica. Uno de los escollos más difíciles de atravesar ha sido por siglos la forma en que Hahnemann nos ha enseñado a ver al ser humano. Concebido como unidad invisible y regido por la Energía Vital, (ambos conceptos extraídos de la filosofía vitalista), esta visión no científica del objeto de estudio ha provocado el rechazo acérrimo de los hombres de ciencia. Al entender al ser humano como una unidad rechazamos el concepto de enfermedad y enaltecemos el de "enfermo". Reconocemos en la Energía Vital el principio de vida que anima la materia y entendemos su lenguaje a través de la evaluación de los síntomas de nuestros pacientes. Este trabajo, munido de los propios avances de la ciencia, prueba que tanto la Visión Holística del ser humano como la Energía Vital son conceptos "científico - reales" dando así el primer gran paso que en el futuro determinará que la Homeopatía Unicista Hahnemanniana es una ciencia en sí misma