From Pharmacognosia to DNA-Based Medicinal Plant Authentication - Pharmacognosy through the Centuries.

For centuries, pharmacognosy was essential for the identification, quality, purity, and, until the end of the 18th century, even for the efficacy of medicinal plants. Since the 19th century, it concentrated on authenticity, purity, quality and the analysis of active substances, and was established as an academic branch discipline within pharmacy and continuously developed into a modern, highly sophisticated science. Even though the paradigm in pharmacy changed in the 19th century with the discovery of morphine and concentrated on single substances that could be synthesized fast by the upcoming industry, medicinal plants always remained an important element of the Materia medica, and during the last decades, medicinal plants continue to be a source of remedies, and natural products are an inspiration for new medicine. In this research, pharmacognostic skills remain an essential element, both with regards to identity, quality assurance of botanicals (both herbal medicines and supplements), and the discovery and development of new medicines. Over the years, the specific pharmacognostical tools have changed dramatically, and most recently, DNA-based techniques have become another element of our spectrum of scientific methods.

[Development of molecular pharmacognosy in China based on bibliometric analysis].

The method of bibliometrics was used to analyze the literature about the application of molecular biotechnique to pharmacognosy which were searched and obtained from the CNKI database and Shanghai intellectual property information platform from the year 1995 to 2015.It was found that 22 462 articles were published and the 63% were funded, 50 core institutions and 888 authors, 18 core journals were engaged in this subject.496 items of patents were authorized and 90 kinds of Chinese Materia Medica were involved.In the view of the quantity and quality of published literature, the scale and influence of journals, institutions, and the extent of subject categories have made remarkable achievement. Molecular pharmacognosy has completed the germination stage of a new subject, and has been in a relatively mature and stable development status.

[The standard operating procedure of the standardization breeding for Poecilobdella manillensis].

OBJECTIVE: To prepare Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for the artificial breeding technology of Poecilobdella manillensi. METHODS: The environment of producing area and breeding technology, the control of diseases, reserving seeds for breeding, harvesting and processing,the standard of the product quality and supervision for the standardization breeding of Poecilobdella Manillensis was studied. RESULTS: The average yield of vital specimen of Poecilobdella Manillensis was 420.88 kg/mu, the natural hirudin in 1kg of the living specimen of Poecilobdella Manillensis contained 430,000 AT-U, and the quality index and hygienic standard of all products complied with the regulations and standards of the State. CONCLUSION: SOP is applicable for the breeding of Poecilobdella manillensi for Guangxi district.

[Studies on X-ray diffraction Fourier fingerprint pattern of Cornu Elaphuri Davidiani].

OBJECTIVE: To establish the analytical method for the fingerprint pattern of Cornu Elaphuri Davidiani by X-ray diffraction. METHODS: Cornu Elaphuri Davidiani from different ages and different parts were analyzed and the fingerprint patterns were determined by X-ray diffraction. The degree of different fingerprint patterns was calculated and analyzed. RESULTS: The reference X-ray diffraction Fourier fingerprint pattern and characteristic diffraction peaks of Cornu Elaphuri Davidiani were obtained by fifteen samples of Cornu Elaphuri Davidiani from different ages and different parts. CONCLUSION: This method can be used for identification and evaluation of Cornu Elaphuri Davidiani.

An update on Shankhpushpi, a cognition-boosting Ayurvedic medicine.

Shankhpushpi is an Ayurvedic drug used for its action on the central nervous system, especially for boosting memory and improving intellect. Quantum of information gained from Ayurvedic and other Sanskrit literature revealed the existence of four different plant species under the name of Shankhpushpi, which is used in various Ayurvedic prescriptions described in ancient texts, singly or in combination with other herbs. The sources comprise of entire herbs with following botanicals viz., Convulvulus pluricaulis Choisy. (Convulvulaceae), Evolvulus alsinoides Linn. (Convulvulaceae), Clitoria ternatea Linn. (Papilionaceae) and Canscora decussata Schult. (Gentianaceae). A review on the available scientific information in terms of pharmacognostical characteristics, chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, preclinical and clinical applications of controversial sources of Shankhpushpi is prepared with a view to review scientific work undertaken on Shankhpushpi. It may provide parameters of differentiation and permit appreciation of variability of drug action by use of different botanical sources.

[Determination of capsaicin in Pheretima aspergillum from different habitats by RP-HPLC].

OBJECTIVE: To determine the content of hypoxanthine in Pheretima aspergillum from different habitats. METHOD: A RP-HPLC method was established. The chromatographic column was Inertsil ODS-EP. The mobile phase was H2O-CH3OH-C4H8O(93:: 7: 0.05). The flow rate was 1.0 ml/min, and the detection wavelength was 254 nm. RESULTS: The average recoveries for hypoxanthine was 98.6% , precision of the method was 0. 50% (RSD, n = 6). CONCLUSION: The method can be used to determine the content of hypoxanthine in Pheretima aspergillum from diffrent habitats.

Authentication of Polygonati Odorati Rhizoma and other two Chinese Materia Medica of the Liliaceae family by pharmacognosy technique with GC-MS analysis.

Yuzhu (Polygonati Odorati Rhizoma), Kangdingyuzhu (Polygonati Prattii Rhizoma), and zhugenqiyuzhu (Disporopsis Fuscopictae Rhizoma) are of the same family, but of different genera. They have all often used in Chinese Materia Medica (CMM) as Polygonati Odorati Rhizoma in China market. Three species of CMM are confused. For better application, we need to identify these plants accurately. This study use pharmacognosy technique and GC-MS analysis, three species of CMM were authenticated. In macroscopic characteristics, the fruit of Polygonati Odorati Rhizoma is blue-black, while the other two are maroon and dark purple orderly. Nodes of Polygonati Odorati Rhizoma are upward and light uplift, about 1 cm spacing, while the other are not. As for microscopic characteristics, the cortex of Polygonati Odorati Rhizoma only occupies about 1/5 of the radius of the transverse section with inconspicuous endodermis, which is much smaller than others. The type of vascular bundles of Polygonati Odorati Rhizoma is closed collateral, but the other is amphivasal. Raphides of calcium oxalate are scattered, but Raphides of the other two are like brooms and neat rows. GC-MS analysis of essential oil could provide different characteristics to distinguish three species. Twenty-three compounds were identified from essential oil of Polygonati Odorati Rhizoma and the main components were n-hexadecanoic acid (49.45%), while n-hexadecanoic acid of the other two are 23.92% and 9.45%. The content of n-hexadecanoic is strongly different. This research was aimed to establish a method by pharmacognosy and GC-MS analysis to identify three CMM and for providing scientifical data to ensure accuracy of origin of three species.

Pharmacognosy in the 21st century.

The term pharmacognosy as a constituent scientific discipline of pharmacy has been in use for nearly 200 years, and it refers to studies on natural product drugs. During the last half of the 20th century, pharmacognosy evolved from being a descriptive botanical subject to one having a more chemical and biological focus. At the beginning of the 21st century, pharmacognosy teaching in academic pharmacy institutions has been given new relevance, as a result of the explosive growth in the use of herbal remedies (phytomedicines) in modern pharmacy practice, particularly in western Europe and North America. In turn, pharmacognosy research areas are continuing to expand, and now include aspects of cell and molecular biology in relation to natural products, ethnobotany and phytotherapy, in addition to the more traditional analytical method development and phytochemistry. Examples are provided in this review of promising bioactive compounds obtained in two multidisciplinary natural product drug discovery projects, aimed at the elucidation of new plant-derived cancer chemotherapeutic agents and novel cancer chemopreventives, respectively. The systematic study of herbal remedies offers pharmacognosy groups an attractive new area of research, ranging from investigating the biologically active principles of phytomedicines and their mode of action and potential drug interactions, to quality control, and involvement in clinical trials.

[On the establishment and development of a resource of Chinese medicinal materials].

The author attempts to elucidate the concept, properties, tasks, scope, historical background and some problems in developing the Resource of Chinese Medicinal Materials, a comprehensive subject which deals with the development, utilization and management of resources of Chinese medicinal materials. The major aim is to provide more and better Chinese crude drugs for clinical and pharmaceutical purposes.

[An investigation of medicinal concha ostreae of Xinghua City, Jiangsu Province].

The investigation shows that this concha ostreae is actually the remains of the geomorphological evolution of the Jiangsu plain, or the fossil of ancient concha ostreae shells, and therefore differs considerably from the medicinal concha ostreae specified in current Chinese Pharmaconeia. The safe and effective use of concha ostreae remains to be studied further.

[Conservation of endangered species resources of Tibetan medicine in China].

OBJECTIVE: To further investigate and discuss the cause of species endangerment, the status and present problem of conservation of traditional Tibetan medicine in China. METHOD: Previous relevant investigations and literatures were summed up in the field. The present situation of conservation of traditional Tibetan medicine was analyzed. RESULT: The status of endangered resources, cause of species endangerment, the conserving status and conserving measures etc were elaborated. The classification was made and suggestion of species conservation of traditional Tibetan medicine were put forward. CONCLUSION: The endangered species conservation of traditional Tibetan medicine was carried out by building protective area of endangered species resources and plant garden, setting up germplasm bank, developing the domestication and cultivation of Tibetan medicinal herbs most in use, strengthening the investigation and study of endangered species, launching exchange and cooperation of conservation techniques on endangered species, enhancing the protective awareness of endangered species traditional Tibetan medicine etc. By so doing we can facilitate the sustainable development of traditional Tibetan medicine in China.

[The tendencies of research on Chinese materia medica in Japan--establishment of morbid models in animals and their application to research on Chinese materia medica].

This paper presents a survey of some pathologic models on animals established to satisfy the needs of research on Chinese materia medica in Japan over the last several years, e.g., model of blood-stasis syndrome, model of "taiyang" syndrome, model of spleen deficiency syndrome, speeded aging model and two related models, i.e. chronic renal insufficiency and bronchitis. All these models can be used for reference in the experimental research on Chinese materia medica.

[Investigation on the resources of medicinal centipedes and identification on their commodities].

Through investigation on the resources of medicinal centipedes and identification on corresponding medicinal materials, the original animals of medicinal centipedes are Scolopendra mutilans, S. multidens, S. mojiangica and S. negrocaptis. The main commercial medicinal centipede is S. mutilans. Its yield accounts for 95%. This paper arranged the retrieve tables of the morphological characters of original animals and commercial materials of medicinal centipedes.

[The morphological and commercial identification on medicinal materials "hailong"].

The morphological characters and commercial idendification on medicinal materials named "Hailong" has been reported. The results of identification of 48 commercial samples indicated "Hailong" is adulterated with Halicampus koilomatodon, Trachyrhamphus serratus and Microphis boaja, Solenognathus güntheri besides three species accepted by Pharmacopoeia.

[The SEM observation of the medicinal materials "hailong"].

The SEM observation of the medicinal meterials "Hailong" have been carried out. The results showed there are significantly difference among 7 species "Hailong".

[A pharmacognostical study on Eomecon chionathe Hance].

The morphological and histological characters for the identification of Eomecon chionathe Hance was illustrated in this paper.

[The morphological and commercial identification on Haima].

The morphological characters and commercial identification on Haima has been reported. The results of identification of 60 commercial samples indicated that all of Haima was the species accepted by Pharmacopoeia. Hippocampus kelloggi, H. histrix, H. kuda and H. trimaculatus were mainly used in Hainan, Guangdong and Fujian Province; H. japonicus was mainly used in Shandong and Liaoning Province; Imported Haima was H. histrix.

[Determination of hypoxanthine and xanthine in hippocampus by HPLC method].

OBJECTIVE: A method was established for the determination of hypoxanthine and xanthine in Hippocampus by HPLC. METHODS: The HPLC system consisted of a Kromasil C18 column (250 mm x 4.6 mm, 5 microm) with methanol-water (2:98, V/V) as the mobile phase. The wavelength of detection was 254 nm. RESULTS: The linear range of hypoxanthine and xanthine were 29.0-464.0 ng (r = 0.99996) and 24.5-392.0 ng (r = 0.9995) respectively. The average recovery of hypoxanthine was 100.73%, RSD = 1.31% (n = 6). The average recovery of xanthine was 100.54%, RSD = 1.14% (n = 6). CONCLUSION: This method is convenient and the result is accurate. It can be used for quality control of Hippocampus.

[Prospects of application of DNA molecular genetic marker to pharmacognostical identification].

The theoretical foundation of application of DNA molecular genetic marker to pharmacognostical identification is summarized. The practical application of the marker is reviewed, the matters deserving attention during application are pointed out, and vistas of the application are spelled out.

[Studies on identification of Gryllotalpa by near-infrared diffuse reflectance spectrometry].

OBJECTIVE: To identify and analyse the different species, same species in different regions and confusion species. METHOD: Near-infrared diffuse reflectance spectrometry was used. RESULT: Clustering analysis showed that clustering relations were far among different Gryllotalpa species and close among the same species from different regions, and there were close relations among the same species from near regions and between Teleogryllus emmus and G. orientalis. CONCLUSION: Near-infrared diffuse reflectance spectrometry method can be used in classification and identification of Gryllotalpa.