Stable isotopes and foraging behaviors support the role of antipredator benefits in driving the association between two marine fishes.

Research from terrestrial communities shows that diminished predation risk is a principal driver of heterospecific grouping behavior, with foraging ecology predicting the roles that species play in groups, as more vulnerable foragers preferentially join more vigilant ones from whom they can benefit. Meanwhile, field studies examining the adaptive significance of heterospecific shoaling among marine fish have focused disproportionately on feeding advantages such as scrounging or prey-flushing. Juvenile bonefish (Albula vulpes) occur almost exclusively among mojarras (Eucinostomus spp.) and even elect to join them over conspecifics, suggesting they benefit from doing so. We evaluated the roles of risk-related and food-related factors in motivating this pattern of affiliation, estimating: (1) the relative levels of risk associated with each species' search and prey capture activities, via behavioral vulnerability traits discerned from in situ video of heterospecific shoals, and (2) resource use redundancy, using stable isotopes (δ13C, δ15N, and δ34S) to quantify niche overlap. Across four distinct metrics, bonefish behaviors implied a markedly greater level of risk than those of mojarras, typified by higher activity levels and a reduced capacity for overt vigilance; consistent with expectations if their association conformed to patterns of joining observed in terrestrial habitats. Resource use overlap inferred from stable isotopes was low, indicating that the two species partitioned resources and making it unlikely that bonefish derived substantive food-related benefits. Collectively, these findings suggest that the attraction of juvenile bonefish to mojarras is motivated primarily by antipredator advantages, which may include the exploitation of risk-related social cues.

Asymmetries in core-collapse supernovae from maps of radioactive 44Ti in Cassiopeia A.

Asymmetry is required by most numerical simulations of stellar core-collapse explosions, but the form it takes differs significantly among models. The spatial distribution of radioactive (44)Ti, synthesized in an exploding star near the boundary between material falling back onto the collapsing core and that ejected into the surrounding medium, directly probes the explosion asymmetries. Cassiopeia A is a young, nearby, core-collapse remnant from which (44)Ti emission has previously been detected but not imaged. Asymmetries in the explosion have been indirectly inferred from a high ratio of observed (44)Ti emission to estimated (56)Ni emission, from optical light echoes, and from jet-like features seen in the X-ray and optical ejecta. Here we report spatial maps and spectral properties of the (44)Ti in Cassiopeia A. This may explain the unexpected lack of correlation between the (44)Ti and iron X-ray emission, the latter being visible only in shock-heated material. The observed spatial distribution rules out symmetric explosions even with a high level of convective mixing, as well as highly asymmetric bipolar explosions resulting from a fast-rotating progenitor. Instead, these observations provide strong evidence for the development of low-mode convective instabilities in core-collapse supernovae.

Effects of predator exposure on baseline and stress-induced glucocorticoid hormone concentrations in pumpkinseed Lepomis gibbosus.

We compared baseline and maximal cortisol concentrations between predator exposure and prey blood samples in pumpkinseed Lepomis gibbosus, captured using a standardised fishing event underneath osprey Pandion haliaetus nests and away from osprey nests. We did not detect differences in cortisol or glucose between sites. These findings suggest that predictable sources of predation risk may not confer stress-related costs in teleosts.

Individual-level behavioral responses of immature green turtles to snorkeler disturbance.

Despite many positive benefits of ecotourism, increased human encounters with wildlife may have detrimental effects on wild animals. As charismatic megafauna, nesting and foraging sea turtles are increasingly the focus of ecotourism activities. The purpose of our study was to quantify the behavioral responses of immature green turtles (Chelonia mydas) to disturbance by snorkelers, and to investigate whether turtles have individual-level responses to snorkeler disturbance. Using a standardized disturbance stimulus in the field, we recorded turtle behaviors pre- and post-disturbance by snorkelers. Ninety percent of turtles disturbed by snorkeler (n = 192) initiated their flights at distances of ≤3 m. Using principal component analysis, we identified two distinct turtle personality types, 'bold' and 'timid', based upon 145 encounters of 19 individually identified turtles and five disturbance response variables. There was significant intra-individual repeatability in behavioral responses to disturbance, but bolder turtles had more behavioral plasticity and less consistent responses than more timid individuals. Bolder individuals with reduced evasion responses might be at a higher risk of shark predation, while more timid turtles might have greater energetic consequences due to non-lethal predator effects and repeated snorkeler disturbance. Over the longer term, a turtle population with a mix of bold and timid individuals may promote more resilient populations. We recommend that snorkelers maintain >3 m distance from immature green turtles when snorkeling, and that ecotourism activities be temporally and spatially stratified. Further, turtle watching guidelines need to be communicated to both tour operators and independent snorkelers to reduce the disturbance of turtles.

If and when: intrinsic differences and environmental stressors influence migration in brown trout (Salmo trutta).

Partial migration is a common phenomenon, yet the causes of individual differences in migratory propensity are not well understood. We examined factors that potentially influence timing of migration and migratory propensity in a wild population of juvenile brown trout (Salmo trutta) by combining experimental manipulations with passive integrated transponder telemetry. Individuals were subjected to one of six manipulations: three designed to mimic natural stressors (temperature increase, food deprivation, and chase by a simulated predator), an injection of exogenous cortisol designed to mimic an extreme physiological challenge, a sham injection, and a control group. By measuring length and mass of 923 individuals prior to manipulation and by monitoring tagged individuals as they left the stream months later, we assessed whether pre-existing differences influenced migratory tendency and timing of migration, and whether our manipulations affected growth, condition, and timing of migration. We found that pre-existing differences predicted migration, with smaller individuals and individuals in poor condition having a higher propensity to migrate. Exogenous cortisol manipulation had the largest negative effect on growth and condition, and resulted in an earlier migration date. Additionally, low-growth individuals within the temperature and food deprivation treatments migrated earlier. By demonstrating that both pre-existing differences in organism state and additional stressors can affect whether and when individuals migrate, we highlight the importance of understanding individual differences in partial migration. These effects may carry over to influence migration success and affect the evolutionary dynamics of sub-populations experiencing different levels of stress, which is particularly relevant in a changing world.

Do physical habitat complexity and predator cues influence the baseline and stress-induced glucocorticoid levels of a mangrove-associated fish?

As human populations continue to expand, increases in coastal development have led to the alteration of much of the world's mangrove habitat, creating problems for the multitude of species that inhabit these unique ecosystems. Habitat alteration often leads to changes in habitat complexity and predation risk, which may serve as additional stressors for those species that rely on mangroves for protection from predators. However, few studies have been conducted to date to assess the effects of these specific stressors on glucocorticoid (GC) stress hormone levels in wild fish populations. Using the checkered puffer as a model, our study sought to examine the effects of physical habitat complexity and predator environment on baseline and acute stress-induced GC levels. This was accomplished by examining changes in glucose and cortisol concentrations of fish placed in artificial environments for short periods (several hours) where substrate type and the presence of mangrove roots and predator cues were manipulated. Our results suggest that baseline and stress-induced GC levels are not significantly influenced by changes in physical habitat complexity or the predator environment using the experimental protocol that we applied. Although more research is required, the current study suggests that checkered puffers may be capable of withstanding changes in habitat complexity and increases in predation risk without experiencing adverse GC-mediated physiological effects, possibly as a result of the puffers' unique morphological and chemical defenses that help them to avoid predation in the wild.

Proto-cooperation: group hunting sailfish improve hunting success by alternating attacks on grouping prey.

We present evidence of a novel form of group hunting. Individual sailfish (Istiophorus platypterus) alternate attacks with other group members on their schooling prey (Sardinella aurita). While only 24% of attacks result in prey capture, multiple prey are injured in 95% of attacks, resulting in an increase of injured fish in the school with the number of attacks. How quickly prey are captured is positively correlated with the level of injury of the school, suggesting that hunters can benefit from other conspecifics' attacks on the prey. To explore this, we built a mathematical model capturing the dynamics of the hunt. We show that group hunting provides major efficiency gains (prey caught per unit time) for individuals in groups of up to 70 members. We also demonstrate that a free riding strategy, where some individuals wait until the prey are sufficiently injured before attacking, is only beneficial if the cost of attacking is high, and only then when waiting times are short. Our findings provide evidence that cooperative benefits can be realized through the facilitative effects of individuals' hunting actions without spatial coordination of attacks. Such 'proto-cooperation' may be the pre-cursor to more complex group-hunting strategies.

Supermassive black-hole growth over cosmic time: active galaxy demography, physics, and ecology from Chandra surveys.

Extragalactic X-ray surveys over the past decade have dramatically improved understanding of the majority populations of active galactic nuclei (AGNs) over most of the history of the universe. Here we briefly highlight some of the exciting discoveries about AGN demography, physics, and ecology, with a focus on results from Chandra. We also discuss some key unresolved questions and future prospects.

Rapid growth of black holes in massive star-forming galaxies.

The tight relationship between the masses of black holes and galaxy spheroids in nearby galaxies implies a causal connection between the growth of these two components. Optically luminous quasars host the most prodigious accreting black holes in the Universe, and can account for greater than or approximately equal to 30 per cent of the total cosmological black-hole growth. As typical quasars are not, however, undergoing intense star formation and already host massive black holes (> 10(8)M(o), where M(o) is the solar mass), there must have been an earlier pre-quasar phase when these black holes grew (mass range approximately (10(6)-10(8))M(o)). The likely signature of this earlier stage is simultaneous black-hole growth and star formation in distant (redshift z > 1; >8 billion light years away) luminous galaxies. Here we report ultra-deep X-ray observations of distant star-forming galaxies that are bright at submillimetre wavelengths. We find that the black holes in these galaxies are growing almost continuously throughout periods of intense star formation. This activity appears to be more tightly associated with these galaxies than any other coeval galaxy populations. We show that the black-hole growth from these galaxies is consistent with that expected for the pre-quasar phase.

No Evidence for Long-Term Carryover Effects in a Wild Salmonid Fish.

AbstractEarly-life experiences can shape life histories and population dynamics of wild animals. To examine whether stressful stimuli experienced in early life resulted in carryover effects in later life stages, we conducted several experimental manipulations and then monitored wild fish with passive integrated transponder tags during juvenile out-migration and adult return migration. In total, 3,217 juvenile brown trout (Salmo trutta) were subjected to one of six manipulations: chase to exhaustion, thermal challenge, food deprivation, low-concentration cortisol injection, high-concentration cortisol injection, and sham injection, plus a control group. Cortisol and food deprivation treatments were previously shown to have short-term effects on juveniles, such as lower survival to out-migration and changes in migration timing. However, it remained unknown whether any of the six manipulations had effects that carried over into the adult phase. We therefore investigated whether these extrinsic manipulations, as well as intrinsic factors (size and condition), affected probability of return as adults and time spent at sea. Of the 1,273 fish that out-migrated, 146 returned as adults. We failed to detect any effect of treatments on return rates, while high-concentration cortisol weakly affected time spent at sea in one tagging event. We also found that juvenile condition was positively correlated to likelihood of adult return in only one tagging event. Overall, our findings did not identify either intrinsic factors or extrinsic stressful early-life experiences that have strong effects on fish that survive to adulthood. This suggests that some species may be more resilient than others to stressful stimuli encountered early in life.

The contribution of apolipoprotein E alleles on cognitive performance and dynamic neural activity over six decades.

Neuroimaging shows brain-functional differences due to apolipoprotein E (APOE) polymorphisms may exist decades before the increased risk period for Alzheimer's disease, but little is known about their effect on cognition and brain function in children and young adults. This study assessed 415 healthy epsilon2 and epsilon4 carriers and matched epsilon3/epsilon3 controls, spanning ages 6-65, on a range of cognitive tests. Subjects were also compared on a new dynamical measure of EEG activity during a visual working memory task using alphabetical stimuli. epsilon4 subjects had better verbal fluency compared to epsilon3, an effect that was strongest in 51-65 year-olds. No epsilon4 deficits in cognition were found. In 6-15 year-olds, there were differences in total spatio-temporal wave activity between epsilon3 and epsilon4 subjects in the theta band, approximately 200ms post-stimulus. Differences in brain function in younger epsilon4 subjects and superior verbal fluency across the entire age range suggest that the APOE epsilon4 allele is an example of antagonistic pleiotropy.

The Evolution of Lateralization in Group Hunting Sailfish.

Lateralization is widespread throughout the animal kingdom [1-7] and can increase task efficiency via shortening reaction times and saving on neural tissue [8-16]. However, lateralization might be costly because it increases predictability [17-21]. In predator-prey interactions, for example, predators might increase capture success because of specialization in a lateralized attack, but at the cost of increased predictability to their prey, constraining the evolution of lateralization. One unexplored mechanism for evading such costs is group hunting: this would allow individual-level specialization, while still allowing for group-level unpredictability. We investigated this mechanism in group hunting sailfish, Istiophorus platypterus, attacking schooling sardines, Sardinella aurita. During these attacks, sailfish alternate in attacking the prey using their elongated bills to slash or tap the prey [22-24]. This rapid bill movement is either leftward or rightward. Using behavioral observations of identifiable individual sailfish hunting in groups, we provide evidence for individual-level attack lateralization in sailfish. More strongly lateralized individuals had a higher capture success. Further evidence of lateralization comes from morphological analyses of sailfish bills that show strong evidence of one-sided micro-teeth abrasions. Finally, we show that attacks by single sailfish are indeed highly predictable, but predictability rapidly declines with increasing group size because of a lack of population-level lateralization. Our results present a novel benefit of group hunting: by alternating attacks, individual-level attack lateralization can evolve, without the negative consequences of individual-level predictability. More generally, our results suggest that group hunting in predators might provide more suitable conditions for the evolution of strategy diversity compared to solitary life.

Measurement of phase gradients in the EEG.

Previous research has shown that spatio-temporal waves in the EEG are generally of long spatial wavelength and form smooth patterns of phase gradients at particular time-samples. This paper describes a method to measure smooth phase gradients of long spatial wavelength in the EEG. The method depends on the global pattern of phase at a given frequency and time and is therefore robust to variations, over time, in phase-lag between particular sites. Phases were estimated in the EEG signal using wavelet or short time-series Fourier methods. During an auditory oddball task, phases across the scalp tend to fall within a limited circular range, a range that is not indicative of phase-synchrony nor waves with multiple periods. At times the phases tended to maintain a spatially and temporally ordered relationship. The relative phases were analysed using three phase gradient basis functions, providing a measure of the amount of variance explained, across the electrodes, by smooth changes in relative phase from a single minimum or single maximum. The data from 586 adult subjects were analysed and it was found that the probability of phase gradient events varies with time and frequency in the stimulus-locked average, and with task demands. The temporal extent of spatio-temporal waves was measured by detecting smoothly changing patterns of phase latencies across the scalp. The specific spatial pattern and timing of phase gradients correspond closely to the latency distributions of certain ERPs.

Contribution of lateral interactions in V1 to organization of response properties.

We propose a model of self-organization of synaptic connections in V1, emphasizing lateral interactions. Subject to Hebbian learning with decay, evolution of synaptic strengths proceeds to a stable state in which all synapses are either saturated, or have minimum pre/post-synaptic coincidence. The most stable configuration gives rise to anatomically realistic "local maps", each of macro-columnar size, and each organized as Mobius projections of retinotopic space. A tiling of V1, constructed of approximately mirror-image reflections of each local map by its neighbors is formed, accounting for orientation-preference singularities, linear zones, and saddle points-with each map linked by connections between sites of common orientation preference. Ocular dominance columns are partly explained as a special case of the same process. The occurrence of direction preference fractures always in odd numbers around singularities is a specific feature explained by the Mobius configuration of the local map. Effects of stimulus velocity, orientation relative to direction of motion, and extension, upon orientation preference, which are not accounted for by spatial filtering, are explained by interactions between the classic receptive field and global V1.

A practical insulin infusion algorithm for the establishment of euglycaemia in both lean and obese patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes.

BACKGROUND: Both in research and in various clinical situations, prolonged euglycaemia can be desirable. In recent years, its benefit in (critically) ill patients and patients with acute myocardial infarction has been established. The objective of this study was to assess safety and efficacy of a practical, bodyweight-dependent algorithm to establish euglycaemia in both lean and obese patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes. METHODS: In 43 patients with type 1 diabetes and 17 patients with type 2 diabetes insulin were infused overnight to establish euglycaemia. Plasma glucose concentration was determined at 45 min intervals, and the insulin infusion rate was altered according to the algorithm. RESULTS: Baseline plasma glucose concentrations were 13.1+/- 4.4 and 12.7 +/- 4.0 mmol/l in type 1 and type 2 diabetic patients, respectively. In both groups mean plasma glucose was reduced below 8.0 mmol/l within 3 h, and averaged 7.4 +/- 1.4 and 7.2 +/- 1.0 mmol/l (P = 0.11) over the next 7 h. Five (11.6%) patients with type 1 diabetes required administration of glucose because plasma glucose concentrations fell below 4.4 mmol/l. Consequently, type 1 diabetic patients were hypoglycaemic during 0.89% of the total study period. The lowest plasma glucose recorded was 3.9 mmol/l. In the type 2 diabetic patients the lowest plasma glucose was 5.5 mmol/l and no glucose administration was required for near-hypoglycaemia. The algorithm was equally effective in both lean and obese patients. CONCLUSIONS: Euglycaemia was established simply, swiftly and safely during the study period with the practical weight-based algorithm used in this study, in both lean and obese type 1 and type 2 diabetic patients, with a very low rate of mild hypoglycaemia. The algorithm is applicable in research and various several clinical settings. Its validity for a prolonged period of time and in critically ill patients needs to be further evaluated.

An In Vitro Perfusion System to Enhance Outflow Studies in Mouse Eyes.

PURPOSE: The molecular mechanisms controlling aqueous humor (AQH) outflow and IOP need much further definition. The mouse is a powerful system for characterizing the mechanistic basis of AQH outflow. To enhance outflow studies in mice, we developed a perfusion system that is based on human anterior chamber perfusion culture systems. Our mouse system permits previously impractical experiments. METHODS: We engineered a computer-controlled, pump-based perfusion system with a platform for mounting whole dissected mouse eyes (minus lens and iris, ∼45% of drainage tissue is perfused). We tested the system's ability to monitor outflow and tested the effects of the outflow-elevating drug, Y27632, a rho-associated protein kinase (ROCK) inhibitor. Finally, we tested the system's ability to detect genetically determined decreases in outflow by determining if deficiency of the candidate genes Nos3 and Cav1 alter outflow. RESULTS: Using our system, the outflow facility (C) of C57BL/6J mouse eyes was found to range between 7.7 and 10.4 nl/minutes/mm Hg (corrected for whole eye). Our system readily detected a 74.4% Y27632-induced increase in C. The NOS3 inhibitor L-NG-nitroarginine methyl ester (L-NAME) and a Nos3 null mutation reduced C by 28.3% and 35.8%, respectively. Similarly, in Cav1 null eyes C was reduced by 47.8%. CONCLUSIONS: We engineered a unique perfusion system that can accurately measure changes in C. We then used the system to show that NOS3 and CAV1 are key components of mechanism(s) controlling outflow.

Maximum swimming speeds of sailfish and three other large marine predatory fish species based on muscle contraction time and stride length: a myth revisited.

Billfishes are considered to be among the fastest swimmers in the oceans. Previous studies have estimated maximum speed of sailfish and black marlin at around 35 m s-1 but theoretical work on cavitation predicts that such extreme speed is unlikely. Here we investigated maximum speed of sailfish, and three other large marine pelagic predatory fish species, by measuring the twitch contraction time of anaerobic swimming muscle. The highest estimated maximum swimming speeds were found in sailfish (8.3±1.4 m s-1), followed by barracuda (6.2±1.0 m s-1), little tunny (5.6±0.2 m s-1) and dorado (4.0±0.9 m s-1); although size-corrected performance was highest in little tunny and lowest in sailfish. Contrary to previously reported estimates, our results suggest that sailfish are incapable of exceeding swimming speeds of 10-15 m s-1, which corresponds to the speed at which cavitation is predicted to occur, with destructive consequences for fin tissues.

Comparison of the accuracy of the HemoCue glucose analyzer with the Yellow Springs Instrument glucose oxidase analyzer, particularly in hypoglycemia.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to assess the accuracy of the HemoCue Beta-glucose analyzer (HemoCue) and its correlation with the Yellow Springs Instrument (YSI 2300 STAT; YSI) glucose oxidase analyzer, in particular for hypoglycemic values. DESIGN AND METHODS: Samples were taken from 24 volunteers during hyperinsulinemic glucose clamp studies. Glucose concentrations were determined immediately with the HemoCue in whole blood and with the YSI in plasma from the same sample. After correction for the difference between whole blood and plasma, the paired plasma glucose concentrations were analyzed with various statistical methods. RESULTS: A total of 500 paired glucose values were obtained, 209 of which were in the hypoglycemic range. Mean+/-s.e. values were 4.85+/-0.004 mmol/l for the HemoCue (range 1.87-16.17) and 4.81+/-0.004 mmol/l for the YSI (range 1.88-15.00; P = 0.80). In the hypoglycemic region, values were 3.26+/-0.004 mmol/l for the HemoCue (range 1.87-5.17) and 3.22+/-0.003 mmol/l for the YSI (range 1.88-4.20; P = 0.59). Regression analyses were HemoCue = 1.019(YSI) -0.0577 mmol/l, with r = 0.9787 for all values; for hypoglycemic values the HemoCue = 1.1169(YSI) -0.3393 mmol/l, with r = 0.8798. Using Altman's residual plot, the difference was 0.03+/-0.0009 mmol/l, with 18 (3.6%) paired values outside the 95% limits of agreement (-0.82 to 0.89 mmol/l). In the hypoglycemic range, the difference was 0.04+/-0.001 mmol/l, with six (2.9%) values outside the 95% limits of agreement (-0.71 to 0.79 mmol/l). In error grid analysis, one value was in zone D (0.2%) and five values (1%) were in zone B; 98.8% were within zone A. CONCLUSIONS: Determination of glucose with the HemoCue system had very good correlation with the YSI system in a broad range of glycemia and also for hypoglycemic values. We believe that these methods can be used interchangeably for research and clinical purposes in adults.

Separating individual skin conductance responses in a short interstimulus-interval paradigm.

We describe a new method for measuring skin conductance responses, designed to overcome the problem of overlapping skin conductance responses. The method relies on the assumptions that the underlying sudomotor nerve signal has a shorter time-constant than the skin conductance signal itself, and that the sudomotor bursts arrive as discrete, separated events. By converting the skin conductance signal into a time-series with a shorter time-constant, we are able to extract the separated peaks in the estimated underlying driver signal. The separated driver peaks are then used to re-estimate each individual skin conductance response. The method is automated and applied to a normative database of 735 subjects, for which skin conductance was measured during an auditory oddball paradigm.