Wastewater recycling in Antarctica: Performance assessment of an advanced water treatment plant in removing trace organic chemicals.

The Australian Antarctic Division (AAD) operates Australia's Davis Station in the Antarctic. In 2005, Davis Station's wastewater treatment plant failed and since then untreated, macerated effluent has been discharged to the ocean. The objectives of this study were to determine whether an advanced water treatment plant (AWTP) commissioned by the AAD and featuring a multi-barrier process involving ozonation, ceramic microfiltration, biologically activated carbon filtration, reverse osmosis, ultraviolet disinfection and chlorination was capable of producing potable water and a non-toxic brine concentrate that can be discharged with minimal environmental impact. The AWTP was tested using water from a municipal wastewater treatment plant in Tasmania, Australia. We used spot water and passive sampling combined with two multi-residue chromatographic-mass spectrometric methods and a range of recombinant receptor-reporter gene bioassays to screen trace organic chemicals (TrOCs), toxicity and receptor activity in the Feed water, in the environmental discharge (reject water), and product water from the AWTP for six months during 2014-15, and then again for three months in 2016. Across the two surveys we unambiguously detected 109 different TrOCs in the feed water, 39 chemicals in the reject water, and 34 chemicals in the product water. Sample toxicity and receptor activity in the feed water samples was almost totally removed in both testing periods, confirming that the vast majority of the receptor active TrOCs were removed by the treatment process. All the NDMA entering the AWTP in the feed and/or produced in the plant (typically < 50 ng/L), was retained into the reject water with no NDMA observed in the product water. In conclusion, the AWTP was working to design, and releases of TrOCs at the concentrations observed in this study would be unlikely cause adverse effects on populations of aquatic organisms in the receiving environment or users of the potable product water.

In situ calibration of passive sampling methods for urban micropollutants using targeted multiresidue GC and LC screening systems.

In this study, ChemcatcherTM (CC) and Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Samplers (POCIS) passive samplers were chosen to investigate trace organic chemical residues in urban streams of the megacity of Sydney, Australia. In situ calibration with these passive samplers investigated 1392 organic chemicals. Six sets of CC passive samplers fitted with SDB-XC or SDB-RPS disks and six POCIS containing Oasis HLB sorbent were deployed at three sites. Every week for six weeks across three deployments, composite water samples were retrieved from autosamplers, along with one set of CC/POCIS passive samplers. Samples were analysed by Automated Identification and Quantification System (AIQS) GC/MS or LC/QTOF-MS database methods with 254 chemicals detected. The most frequently detected compounds under GC/MS analysis were aliphatic, pesticides, phenols, PAHs, sterols and fatty acid methyl esters while from LC/QTOF-MS analysis these were pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products. Sampling rates (Rs) ranged between <0.001 - 0.132 L day-1 (CC SDB-XC, 18 chemicals), <0.001 - 0.291 L day-1 (CC SDB-RPS, 28 chemicals), and <0.001 - 0.576 L day-1 (POCIS Oasis HLB, 30 chemicals). Assessment of deployment duration indicated that about half of the chemicals that were continuously detected across all deployment weeks had maximal simple linear regression R2 values at four weeks for CC SDB-RPS (seven of 13 chemicals) and at three weeks for POCIS Oasis HLB (seven of 14 chemicals). Where ranges of Rs recorded from the estuarine site were able to be compared to ranges of Rs from one or both freshwater sites, only tributyl phosphate had a higher range of Rs out of 21 possible chemical comparisons, and suggested salinity was an unlikely influence on Rs. Whereas relatively higher rainfall of the third round of deployment aligned with higher Rs across the estuarine and freshwater sites for CC SDB-RPS and POCIS for nearly all possible comparisons.

In vitro assessment of retinoic acid and aryl hydrocarbon receptor activity of treated effluent from 39 wastewater-treatment plants in Victoria, Australia.

This project involved the collection of final effluent samples from 39 wastewater-treatment plants (WWTPs) in Victoria, Australia, in late summer (late February to early March 2007). The 39 WWTPs included 15 lagoon-based plants and 24 with activated sludge-based processes. Samples were collected and subjected to measurement of retinoic acid receptor (RAR) and aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) activity of the dissolved phase using yeast-based recombinant receptor-reporter gene bioassays. More than 90% of the effluents examined in this study elicited RAR activity (<0.5-198 ng/l a-t-RA equivalents [EQ]). All of the effluents had AhR activity (16-279 ng/l ßNF EQ). Notwithstanding the paucity of comparative data, on the whole, the levels of RAR and AhR activity observed in this pilot survey of Victorian WWTP effluents were greater than those recently reported internationally. One assumption commonly made is that WWTP discharges will be diluted significantly in the receiving environment, further decreasing the potential risk of the discharges. Making this assumption may not be appropriate for some of Victoria's more ephemeral waterways or where effluent is discharged to an enclosed water body, such as a lake or terminal wetland. However, even where WWTP discharges represent all of the environmental flow in the warmer months, the observed RAR and AhR activity (as all-trans-retinoic acid (RA) and 2,3,7,8-tetrachloro-dibenzo-p-dioxin [TCDD] EQ, respectively) was still significantly lower than the concentrations of RA, and 2,3,7,8-TCCD known to cause developmental malformations in fish larvae after short-term exposure to these chemicals. Of perhaps greater concern, WWTP effluent can contain significant suspended solids (essentially biosolids), which may be a considerable sink for some hormonally active, hydrophobic compounds, and which may in turn increase the long-term exposure risk for aquatic fauna. Further studies of the nuclear and AhR activity of WWTP effluent suspended soilds are required to address this hypothesis.

In vitro and immunological assessment of the estrogenic activity and concentrations of 17beta-estradiol, estrone, and ethinyl estradiol in treated effluent from 45 wastewater treatment plants in Victoria, Australia.

The project was conducted between May 2006 and September 2007, and involved the collection of effluent samples from 45 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The 45 WWTPs included 16 lagoon-based plants and 29 with activated sludge-based processes. Permission was obtained from all the relevant water authorities to collect samples of final effluent at point of discharge to the environment, whether that was to a creek, a river, the ocean, or the land. Samples were collected on two occasions, namely, in August 2006 (winter) and late February-early March 2007 (summer), and subjected to a number of biological and chemical analyses, including toxicity tests, measurement of hormonal (estrogenic) activity using yeast-based bioassays, and measurement of specific hormonal concentrations using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). Almost all of the effluents examined showed estrogenic activity: in winter, no activity to 73 ng/l 17beta-estradiol equivalents (EEQ); and in summer, no activity to 20 ng/l EEQ. On the whole, the levels of estrogenic activity observed were comparable with the range recently reported in Australia and New Zealand using human estrogen receptor-based assays ("not detected" to approximately 10 ng/l EEQ). The low/no bioassay response was confirmed by the chemical assessment of estradiol, estrone, and ethinyl estradiol concentrations by ELISA, which returned concentrations of these compounds for the most part below 10 ng/l.

Observations on the estrogenic activity and concentration of 17beta-estradiol in the discharges of 12 wastewater treatment plants in southern australia.

There is very little information on the overall level of estrogenic activity, or concentrations of specific hormonal compounds in wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) discharges in Australia, compared with Europe, Japan, and North America. To partly address this, in 2004, water samples were collected as "grab" or "spot" samples from 12 WWTP facilities across southern Victoria at the point at which effluent enters the environment, either as recycled water or direct discharge to the receiving water. The WWTPs were of a variety of treatment types and served a diverse range of rural and regional municipalities. For instance, of the 12 WWTPs, 3 served municipalities with populations greater than 100,000, 4 with populations between 20,000 and 100,000, and 5 with populations less than 5,000. The principal treatment process in six was an activated sludge system, and three were trickle-filter-based systems. The remaining plants fall into a "miscellaneous" category, each plant having a mixture of treatment processes within the overall systems. The estrogenic activity and 17beta-estradiol concentrations of the samples were assessed using a yeast-based, in vitro reporter gene assay and enzyme-linked immunosorbant assays, respectively. Most of the effluents showed estrogenic activity in the assays (hER, no response: 7.9 ng/L EEQ; mER, no response: 44.5 ng/L EEQ). There was no correlation between estrogenic response and the results of a concurrent toxicity assay, suggesting that a lack of bioassay response was related to lack of estrogenic compounds, rather than the direct toxic effect of the sample. Estradiol concentrations were for the most part in the range 2-5 ng/L, with one sample at 18 ng/L. Despite the assurance our results might provide (of minimal impact in most cases if there is significant dilution), there is still a need for further extensive on-ground reassurance research to provide data for higher-level risk assessment by industry and government agencies. In particular, more research is warranted to verify the estrogenic activity and to expand the range of specific hormone/metabolites reported in these studies. Moreover, studies are required to determine if the estrogenic activity reported in this and other recent Australian studies is sufficient to induce a physiological effect in exposed aquatic organisms, especially Australian native fish.

DDT and metabolites residues in the southern bent-wing bat (Miniopterus schreibersii bassanii) of south-eastern Australia.

The southern bent-wing bat (Miniopterus schreibersii bassanii) is an insectivorous, obligate cave dwelling species found in south-eastern South Australia and western Victoria, Australia. In recent times, the finger of blame for an apparent population decline at Bat Cave, Naracoorte (one of only two known maternity roosts for this species, the other being Starlight Cave, Warrnambool) has been pointed at pesticide use in the region, following the finding of organochlorine and organophosphate insecticide residues in bat guano. This study sampled juvenile southern bent-wing bats from Bat Cave and Starlight Cave, and determined DDT, DDD and DDE concentrations in liver, pectoral muscle, brain and back-depot fat tissues. DDT was detected in only three tissue samples (highest concentration, 126 microg kg(-1) (wet weight) in back-depot fat), DDD was detected only in brain tissue (highest concentration, 115 microg kg(-1) (wet weight)), but DDE was detected in most tissues (highest concentration, 24,200 microg kg(-1) (wet weight) in back-depot fat). A minimum DDE body burden was estimated for each bat, and then for each sex at each site, from the data from all tissues sampled. The DDE body burdens estimated were highest in male bats from Starlight Cave (114 microg kg(-1)), then females from Starlight Cave (54.5 microg kg(-1)), and males from Bat Cave (53.2 microg kg(-1)). Female bats at Bat Cave contained the lowest estimated body burden (24.2 microg kg(-1)). Comparisons of DDE concentrations between the sexes showed that contamination was not statistically different within each maternity site. The different chemical concentrations observed in the Bat Cave and Starlight Cave bats is suggestive of different feeding locations, and perhaps an emerging population split, further threatening a species already at risk as a result of landscape scale changes to land use across their range.

The importance of fortification of flour with calcium and the sources of Ca in the diet of 375 English adolescents.

The contribution of the fortification of flour with calcium carbonate to the Ca intake of 375, 11-14-year-old Northumbrian children has been calculated. Mean Ca intakes were above those currently recommended for children of this age. The fortification of flour supplied 16% of the total Ca intakes. Without the fortification, the percentage of these children with intakes below the recommended intake would be more than double. This would include the majority of girls (particularly those of social classes III, IV and V). The recommendation to stop fortifying flour with calcium carbonate should be reviewed.

Sugars-eating habits of 405 11- to 14-year-old English children.

Between September 1979 and July 1981, 405 northern-English children, initially aged 11-12 years, each recorded all food and drink consumed on five occasions on each of three consecutive days. Sugars and nutrient intakes were calculated using food tables. The average total sugars intake was 118 g/d or 21% of the energy intake and 43% of the carbohydrate intake; these percentages were similar for both sexes, all social class groups and surveys. Sugars were found to be derived from a variety of food sources with confectionery being the single largest source. Sugars were fairly evenly consumed over the average day with a high amount in foods eaten between meals. Snacks accounted for 65% of the sugars intake but only 46% of the energy intake. Sugars intake and snacking therefore seem to have been major components of the eating habits of these children. If dietary changes towards lower sugars intakes are to be achieved a vigorous, informed health education campaign is necessary together with effective labelling of manufactured foods, the development of new products and the modification of some existing ones.