SHP-2 and PD-1-SHP-2 signaling regulate myeloid cell differentiation and antitumor responses.

The inhibitory receptor PD-1 suppresses T cell activation by recruiting the phosphatase SHP-2. However, mice with a T-cell-specific deletion of SHP-2 do not have improved antitumor immunity. Here we showed that mice with conditional targeting of SHP-2 in myeloid cells, but not in T cells, had diminished tumor growth. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) followed by gene set enrichment analysis indicated the presence of polymorphonuclear myeloid-derived suppressor cells and tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) with enriched gene expression profiles of enhanced differentiation, activation and expression of immunostimulatory molecules. In mice with conditional targeting of PD-1 in myeloid cells, which also displayed diminished tumor growth, TAMs had gene expression profiles enriched for myeloid differentiation, activation and leukocyte-mediated immunity displaying >50% overlap with enriched profiles of SHP-2-deficient TAMs. In bone marrow, GM-CSF induced the phosphorylation of PD-1 and recruitment of PD-1-SHP-2 to the GM-CSF receptor. Deletion of SHP-2 or PD-1 enhanced GM-CSF-mediated phosphorylation of the transcription factors HOXA10 and IRF8, which regulate myeloid differentiation and monocytic-moDC lineage commitment, respectively. Thus, SHP-2 and PD-1-SHP-2 signaling restrained myelocyte differentiation resulting in a myeloid landscape that suppressed antitumor immunity.

Transaminase Inhibition by 2-Hydroxyglutarate Impairs Glutamate Biosynthesis and Redox Homeostasis in Glioma.

IDH1 mutations are common in low-grade gliomas and secondary glioblastomas and cause overproduction of (R)-2HG. (R)-2HG modulates the activity of many enzymes, including some that are linked to transformation and some that are probably bystanders. Although prior work on (R)-2HG targets focused on 2OG-dependent dioxygenases, we found that (R)-2HG potently inhibits the 2OG-dependent transaminases BCAT1 and BCAT2, likely as a bystander effect, thereby decreasing glutamate levels and increasing dependence on glutaminase for the biosynthesis of glutamate and one of its products, glutathione. Inhibiting glutaminase specifically sensitized IDH mutant glioma cells to oxidative stress in vitro and to radiation in vitro and in vivo. These findings highlight the complementary roles for BCATs and glutaminase in glutamate biosynthesis, explain the sensitivity of IDH mutant cells to glutaminase inhibitors, and suggest a strategy for maximizing the effectiveness of such inhibitors against IDH mutant gliomas.

Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase Regulates Glycolysis through Mobilization of Aldolase from the Actin Cytoskeleton.

The phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway regulates multiple steps in glucose metabolism and also cytoskeletal functions, such as cell movement and attachment. Here, we show that PI3K directly coordinates glycolysis with cytoskeletal dynamics in an AKT-independent manner. Growth factors or insulin stimulate the PI3K-dependent activation of Rac, leading to disruption of the actin cytoskeleton, release of filamentous actin-bound aldolase A, and an increase in aldolase activity. Consistently, PI3K inhibitors, but not AKT, SGK, or mTOR inhibitors, cause a significant decrease in glycolysis at the step catalyzed by aldolase, while activating PIK3CA mutations have the opposite effect. These results point toward a master regulatory function of PI3K that integrates an epithelial cell's metabolism and its form, shape, and function, coordinating glycolysis with the energy-intensive dynamics of actin remodeling.

The Circadian Protein BMAL1 Regulates Translation in Response to S6K1-Mediated Phosphorylation.

The circadian timing system synchronizes cellular function by coordinating rhythmic transcription via a transcription-translational feedback loop. How the circadian system regulates gene expression at the translational level remains a mystery. Here, we show that the key circadian transcription factor BMAL1 associates with the translational machinery in the cytosol and promotes protein synthesis. The mTOR-effector kinase, ribosomal S6 protein kinase 1 (S6K1), an important regulator of translation, rhythmically phosphorylates BMAL1 at an evolutionarily conserved site. S6K1-mediated phosphorylation is critical for BMAL1 to both associate with the translational machinery and stimulate protein synthesis. Protein synthesis rates demonstrate circadian oscillations dependent on BMAL1. Thus, in addition to its critical role in circadian transcription, BMAL1 is a translation factor that links circadian timing and the mTOR signaling pathway. More broadly, these results expand the role of the circadian clock to the regulation of protein synthesis.

The mTORC1-SLC4A7 axis stimulates bicarbonate import to enhance de novo nucleotide synthesis.

Bicarbonate (HCO3-) ions maintain pH homeostasis in eukaryotic cells and serve as a carbonyl donor to support cellular metabolism. However, whether the abundance of HCO3- is regulated or harnessed to promote cell growth is unknown. The mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) adjusts cellular metabolism to support biomass production and cell growth. We find that mTORC1 stimulates the intracellular transport of HCO3- to promote nucleotide synthesis through the selective translational regulation of the sodium bicarbonate cotransporter SLC4A7. Downstream of mTORC1, SLC4A7 mRNA translation required the S6K-dependent phosphorylation of the translation factor eIF4B. In mTORC1-driven cells, loss of SLC4A7 resulted in reduced cell and tumor growth and decreased flux through de novo purine and pyrimidine synthesis in human cells and tumors without altering the intracellular pH. Thus, mTORC1 signaling, through the control of SLC4A7 expression, harnesses environmental bicarbonate to promote anabolic metabolism, cell biomass, and growth.

A secreted tyrosine kinase acts in the extracellular environment.

Although tyrosine phosphorylation of extracellular proteins has been reported to occur extensively in vivo, no secreted protein tyrosine kinase has been identified. As a result, investigation of the potential role of extracellular tyrosine phosphorylation in physiological and pathological tissue regulation has not been possible. Here, we show that VLK, a putative protein kinase previously shown to be essential in embryonic development, is a secreted protein kinase, with preference for tyrosine, that phosphorylates a broad range of secreted and ER-resident substrate proteins. We find that VLK is rapidly and quantitatively secreted from platelets in response to stimuli and can tyrosine phosphorylate coreleased proteins utilizing endogenous as well as exogenous ATP sources. We propose that discovery of VLK activity provides an explanation for the extensive and conserved pattern of extracellular tyrosine phosphophorylation seen in vivo, and extends the importance of regulated tyrosine phosphorylation into the extracellular environment.

A phosphate-sensing organelle regulates phosphate and tissue homeostasis.

Inorganic phosphate (Pi) is one of the essential molecules for life. However, little is known about intracellular Pi metabolism and signalling in animal tissues1. Following the observation that chronic Pi starvation causes hyperproliferation in the digestive epithelium of Drosophila melanogaster, we determined that Pi starvation triggers the downregulation of the Pi transporter PXo. In line with Pi starvation, PXo deficiency caused midgut hyperproliferation. Interestingly, immunostaining and ultrastructural analyses showed that PXo specifically marks non-canonical multilamellar organelles (PXo bodies). Further, by Pi imaging with a Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based Pi sensor2, we found that PXo restricts cytosolic Pi levels. PXo bodies require PXo for biogenesis and undergo degradation following Pi starvation. Proteomic and lipidomic characterization of PXo bodies unveiled their distinct feature as an intracellular Pi reserve. Therefore, Pi starvation triggers PXo downregulation and PXo body degradation as a compensatory mechanism to increase cytosolic Pi. Finally, we identified connector of kinase to AP-1 (Cka), a component of the STRIPAK complex and JNK signalling3, as the mediator of PXo knockdown- or Pi starvation-induced hyperproliferation. Altogether, our study uncovers PXo bodies as a critical regulator of cytosolic Pi levels and identifies a Pi-dependent PXo-Cka-JNK signalling cascade controlling tissue homeostasis.

mTORC1 stimulates cell growth through SAM synthesis and m6A mRNA-dependent control of protein synthesis.

The mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) regulates metabolism and cell growth in response to nutrient, growth, and oncogenic signals. We found that mTORC1 stimulates the synthesis of the major methyl donor, S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), through the control of methionine adenosyltransferase 2 alpha (MAT2A) expression. The transcription factor c-MYC, downstream of mTORC1, directly binds to intron 1 of MAT2A and promotes its expression. Furthermore, mTORC1 increases the protein abundance of Wilms' tumor 1-associating protein (WTAP), the positive regulatory subunit of the human N6-methyladenosine (m6A) RNA methyltransferase complex. Through the control of MAT2A and WTAP levels, mTORC1 signaling stimulates m6A RNA modification to promote protein synthesis and cell growth. A decline in intracellular SAM levels upon MAT2A inhibition decreases m6A RNA modification, protein synthesis rate, and tumor growth. Thus, mTORC1 adjusts m6A RNA modification through the control of SAM and WTAP levels to prime the translation machinery for anabolic cell growth.

O-GlcNAc Transferase Suppresses Inflammation and Necroptosis by Targeting Receptor-Interacting Serine/Threonine-Protein Kinase 3.

Elevated glucose metabolism in immune cells represents a hallmark feature of many inflammatory diseases, such as sepsis. However, the role of individual glucose metabolic pathways during immune cell activation and inflammation remains incompletely understood. Here, we demonstrate a previously unrecognized anti-inflammatory function of the O-linked ß-N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) signaling associated with the hexosamine biosynthesis pathway (HBP). Despite elevated activities of glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway, activation of macrophages with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) resulted in attenuated HBP activity and protein O-GlcNAcylation. Deletion of O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT), a key enzyme for protein O-GlcNAcylation, led to enhanced innate immune activation and exacerbated septic inflammation. Mechanistically, OGT-mediated O-GlcNAcylation of the serine-threonine kinase RIPK3 on threonine 467 (T467) prevented RIPK3-RIPK1 hetero- and RIPK3-RIPK3 homo-interaction and inhibited downstream innate immunity and necroptosis signaling. Thus, our study identifies an immuno-metabolic crosstalk essential for fine-tuning innate immune cell activation and highlights the importance of glucose metabolism in septic inflammation.

Lin28 enhances tissue repair by reprogramming cellular metabolism.

Regeneration capacity declines with age, but why juvenile organisms show enhanced tissue repair remains unexplained. Lin28a, a highly conserved RNA-binding protein expressed during embryogenesis, plays roles in development, pluripotency, and metabolism. To determine whether Lin28a might influence tissue repair in adults, we engineered the reactivation of Lin28a expression in several models of tissue injury. Lin28a reactivation improved hair regrowth by promoting anagen in hair follicles and accelerated regrowth of cartilage, bone, and mesenchyme after ear and digit injuries. Lin28a inhibits let-7 microRNA biogenesis; however, let-7 repression was necessary but insufficient to enhance repair. Lin28a bound to and enhanced the translation of mRNAs for several metabolic enzymes, thereby increasing glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation (OxPhos). Lin28a-mediated enhancement of tissue repair was negated by OxPhos inhibition, whereas a pharmacologically induced increase in OxPhos enhanced repair. Thus, Lin28a enhances tissue repair in some adult tissues by reprogramming cellular bioenergetics. PAPERCLIP:

Depletion of a putatively druggable class of phosphatidylinositol kinases inhibits growth of p53-null tumors.

Here, we show that a subset of breast cancers express high levels of the type 2 phosphatidylinositol-5-phosphate 4-kinases α and/or ß (PI5P4Kα and ß) and provide evidence that these kinases are essential for growth in the absence of p53. Knocking down PI5P4Kα and ß in a breast cancer cell line bearing an amplification of the gene encoding PI5P4K ß and deficient for p53 impaired growth on plastic and in xenografts. This growth phenotype was accompanied by enhanced levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) leading to senescence. Mice with homozygous deletion of both TP53 and PIP4K2B were not viable, indicating a synthetic lethality for loss of these two genes. Importantly however, PIP4K2A(-/-), PIP4K2B(+/-), and TP53(-/-) mice were viable and had a dramatic reduction in tumor formation compared to TP53(-/-) littermates. These results indicate that inhibitors of PI5P4Ks could be effective in preventing or treating cancers with mutations in TP53.

PI3K drives the de novo synthesis of coenzyme A from vitamin B5.

In response to hormones and growth factors, the class I phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K) signalling network functions as a major regulator of metabolism and growth, governing cellular nutrient uptake, energy generation, reducing cofactor production and macromolecule biosynthesis1. Many of the driver mutations in cancer with the highest recurrence, including in receptor tyrosine kinases, Ras, PTEN and PI3K, pathologically activate PI3K signalling2,3. However, our understanding of the core metabolic program controlled by PI3K is almost certainly incomplete. Here, using mass-spectrometry-based metabolomics and isotope tracing, we show that PI3K signalling stimulates the de novo synthesis of one of the most pivotal metabolic cofactors: coenzyme A (CoA). CoA is the major carrier of activated acyl groups in cells4,5 and is synthesized from cysteine, ATP and the essential nutrient vitamin B5 (also known as pantothenate)6,7. We identify pantothenate kinase 2 (PANK2) and PANK4 as substrates of the PI3K effector kinase AKT8. Although PANK2 is known to catalyse the rate-determining first step of CoA synthesis, we find that the minimally characterized but highly conserved PANK49 is a rate-limiting suppressor of CoA synthesis through its metabolite phosphatase activity. Phosphorylation of PANK4 by AKT relieves this suppression. Ultimately, the PI3K-PANK4 axis regulates the abundance of acetyl-CoA and other acyl-CoAs, CoA-dependent processes such as lipid metabolism and proliferation. We propose that these regulatory mechanisms coordinate cellular CoA supplies with the demands of hormone/growth-factor-driven or oncogene-driven metabolism and growth.

ERK2 Phosphorylates PFAS to Mediate Posttranslational Control of De Novo Purine Synthesis.

The RAS-ERK/MAPK (RAS-extracellular signal-regulated kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinase) pathway integrates growth-promoting signals to stimulate cell growth and proliferation, at least in part, through alterations in metabolic gene expression. However, examples of direct and rapid regulation of the metabolic pathways by the RAS-ERK pathway remain elusive. We find that physiological and oncogenic ERK signaling activation leads to acute metabolic flux stimulation through the de novo purine synthesis pathway, thereby increasing building block availability for RNA and DNA synthesis, which is required for cell growth and proliferation. We demonstrate that ERK2, but not ERK1, phosphorylates the purine synthesis enzyme PFAS (phosphoribosylformylglycinamidine synthase) at T619 in cells to stimulate de novo purine synthesis. The expression of nonphosphorylatable PFAS (T619A) decreases purine synthesis, RAS-dependent cancer cell-colony formation, and tumor growth. Thus, ERK2-mediated PFAS phosphorylation facilitates the increase in nucleic acid synthesis required for anabolic cell growth and proliferation.

Oncogenic Kras maintains pancreatic tumors through regulation of anabolic glucose metabolism.

Tumor maintenance relies on continued activity of driver oncogenes, although their rate-limiting role is highly context dependent. Oncogenic Kras mutation is the signature event in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), serving a critical role in tumor initiation. Here, an inducible Kras(G12D)-driven PDAC mouse model establishes that advanced PDAC remains strictly dependent on Kras(G12D) expression. Transcriptome and metabolomic analyses indicate that Kras(G12D) serves a vital role in controlling tumor metabolism through stimulation of glucose uptake and channeling of glucose intermediates into the hexosamine biosynthesis and pentose phosphate pathways (PPP). These studies also reveal that oncogenic Kras promotes ribose biogenesis. Unlike canonical models, we demonstrate that Kras(G12D) drives glycolysis intermediates into the nonoxidative PPP, thereby decoupling ribose biogenesis from NADP/NADPH-mediated redox control. Together, this work provides in vivo mechanistic insights into how oncogenic Kras promotes metabolic reprogramming in native tumors and illuminates potential metabolic targets that can be exploited for therapeutic benefit in PDAC.

SIRT1 activates MAO-A in the brain to mediate anxiety and exploratory drive.

SIRT1 is a NAD(+)-dependent deacetylase that governs a number of genetic programs to cope with changes in the nutritional status of cells and organisms. Behavioral responses to food abundance are important for the survival of higher animals. Here we used mice with increased or decreased brain SIRT1 to show that this sirtuin regulates anxiety and exploratory drive by activating transcription of the gene encoding the monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) to reduce serotonin levels in the brain. Indeed, treating animals with MAO-A inhibitors or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) normalized anxiety differences between wild-type and mutant animals. SIRT1 deacetylates the brain-specific helix-loop-helix transcription factor NHLH2 on lysine 49 to increase its activation of the MAO-A promoter. Both common and rare variations in the SIRT1 gene were shown to be associated with risk of anxiety in human population samples. Together these data indicate that SIRT1 mediates levels of anxiety, and this regulation may be adaptive in a changing environment of food availability.

Metabolic regulation of protein N-alpha-acetylation by Bcl-xL promotes cell survival.

Previous experiments suggest a connection between the N-alpha-acetylation of proteins and sensitivity of cells to apoptotic signals. Here, we describe a biochemical assay to detect the acetylation status of proteins and demonstrate that protein N-alpha-acetylation is regulated by the availability of acetyl-CoA. Because the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-xL is known to influence mitochondrial metabolism, we reasoned that Bcl-xL may provide a link between protein N-alpha-acetylation and apoptosis. Indeed, Bcl-xL overexpression leads to a reduction in levels of acetyl-CoA and N-alpha-acetylated proteins in the cell. This effect is independent of Bax and Bak, the known binding partners of Bcl-xL. Increasing cellular levels of acetyl-CoA by addition of acetate or citrate restores protein N-alpha-acetylation in Bcl-xL-expressing cells and confers sensitivity to apoptotic stimuli. We propose that acetyl-CoA serves as a signaling molecule that couples apoptotic sensitivity to metabolism by regulating protein N-alpha-acetylation.

Age-induced accumulation of methylmalonic acid promotes tumour progression.

The risk of cancer and associated mortality increases substantially in humans from the age of 65 years onwards1-6. Nonetheless, our understanding of the complex relationship between age and cancer is still in its infancy2,3,7,8. For decades, this link has largely been attributed to increased exposure time to mutagens in older individuals. However, this view does not account for the established role of diet, exercise and small molecules that target the pace of metabolic ageing9-12. Here we show that metabolic alterations that occur with age can produce a systemic environment that favours the progression and aggressiveness of tumours. Specifically, we show that methylmalonic acid (MMA), a by-product of propionate metabolism, is upregulated in the serum of older people and functions as a mediator of tumour progression. We traced this to the ability of MMA to induce SOX4 expression and consequently to elicit transcriptional reprogramming that can endow cancer cells with aggressive properties. Thus, the accumulation of MMA represents a link between ageing and cancer progression, suggesting that MMA is a promising therapeutic target for advanced carcinomas.

mTORC1 Promotes Metabolic Reprogramming by the Suppression of GSK3-Dependent Foxk1 Phosphorylation.

The mammalian Target of Rapamycin Complex 1 (mTORC1)-signaling system plays a critical role in the maintenance of cellular homeostasis by sensing and integrating multiple extracellular and intracellular cues. Therefore, uncovering the effectors of mTORC1 signaling is pivotal to understanding its pathophysiological effects. Here we report that the transcription factor forkhead/winged helix family k1 (Foxk1) is a mediator of mTORC1-regulated gene expression. Surprisingly, Foxk1 phosphorylation is increased upon mTORC1 suppression, which elicits a 14-3-3 interaction, a reduction of DNA binding, and nuclear exclusion. Mechanistically, this occurs by mTORC1-dependent suppression of nuclear signaling by the Foxk1 kinase, Gsk3. This pathway then regulates the expression of multiple genes associated with glycolysis and downstream anabolic pathways directly modulated by Foxk1 and/or by Foxk1-regulated expression of Hif-1α. Thus, Foxk1 mediates mTORC1-driven metabolic rewiring, and it is likely to be critical for metabolic diseases where improper mTORC1 signaling plays an important role.

Phosphatidylinositol-5-Phosphate 4-Kinases Regulate Cellular Lipid Metabolism By Facilitating Autophagy.

While the majority of phosphatidylinositol-4, 5-bisphosphate (PI-4, 5-P2) in mammalian cells is generated by the conversion of phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate (PI-4-P) to PI-4, 5-P2, a small fraction can be made by phosphorylating phosphatidylinositol-5-phosphate (PI-5-P). The physiological relevance of this second pathway is not clear. Here, we show that deletion of the genes encoding the two most active enzymes in this pathway, Pip4k2a and Pip4k2b, in the liver of mice causes a large enrichment in lipid droplets and in autophagic vesicles during fasting. These changes are due to a defect in the clearance of autophagosomes that halts autophagy and reduces the supply of nutrients salvaged through this pathway. Similar defects in autophagy are seen in nutrient-starved Pip4k2a-/-Pip4k2b-/- mouse embryonic fibroblasts and in C. elegans lacking the PI5P4K ortholog. These results suggest that this alternative pathway for PI-4, 5-P2 synthesis evolved, in part, to enhance the ability of multicellular organisms to survive starvation.

Phosphorylation of EZH2 by AMPK Suppresses PRC2 Methyltransferase Activity and Oncogenic Function.

Sustained energy starvation leads to activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which coordinates energy status with numerous cellular processes including metabolism, protein synthesis, and autophagy. Here, we report that AMPK phosphorylates the histone methyltransferase EZH2 at T311 to disrupt the interaction between EZH2 and SUZ12, another core component of the polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2), leading to attenuated PRC2-dependent methylation of histone H3 at Lys27. As such, PRC2 target genes, many of which are known tumor suppressors, were upregulated upon T311-EZH2 phosphorylation, which suppressed tumor cell growth both in cell culture and mouse xenografts. Pathologically, immunohistochemical analyses uncovered a positive correlation between AMPK activity and pT311-EZH2, and higher pT311-EZH2 correlates with better survival in both ovarian and breast cancer patients. Our finding suggests that AMPK agonists might be promising sensitizers for EZH2-targeting cancer therapies.