Vulnerable newborn types: analysis of subnational, population-based birth cohorts for 541 285 live births in 23 countries, 2000-2021.

OBJECTIVE: To examine prevalence of novel newborn types among 541 285 live births in 23 countries from 2000 to 2021. DESIGN: Descriptive multi-country secondary data analysis. SETTING: Subnational, population-based birth cohort studies (n = 45) in 23 low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) spanning 2000-2021. POPULATION: Liveborn infants. METHODS: Subnational, population-based studies with high-quality birth outcome data from LMICs were invited to join the Vulnerable Newborn Measurement Collaboration. We defined distinct newborn types using gestational age (preterm [PT], term [T]), birthweight for gestational age using INTERGROWTH-21st standards (small for gestational age [SGA], appropriate for gestational age [AGA] or large for gestational age [LGA]), and birthweight (low birthweight, LBW [<2500 g], nonLBW) as ten types (using all three outcomes), six types (by excluding the birthweight categorisation), and four types (by collapsing the AGA and LGA categories). We defined small types as those with at least one classification of LBW, PT or SGA. We presented study characteristics, participant characteristics, data missingness, and prevalence of newborn types by region and study. RESULTS: Among 541 285 live births, 476 939 (88.1%) had non-missing and plausible values for gestational age, birthweight and sex required to construct the newborn types. The median prevalences of ten types across studies were T+AGA+nonLBW (58.0%), T+LGA+nonLBW (3.3%), T+AGA+LBW (0.5%), T+SGA+nonLBW (14.2%), T+SGA+LBW (7.1%), PT+LGA+nonLBW (1.6%), PT+LGA+LBW (0.2%), PT+AGA+nonLBW (3.7%), PT+AGA+LBW (3.6%) and PT+SGA+LBW (1.0%). The median prevalence of small types (six types, 37.6%) varied across studies and within regions and was higher in Southern Asia (52.4%) than in Sub-Saharan Africa (34.9%). CONCLUSIONS: Further investigation is needed to describe the mortality risks associated with newborn types and understand the implications of this framework for local targeting of interventions to prevent adverse pregnancy outcomes in LMICs.

Factors affecting early identification of pregnant women by community health workers in Morogoro, Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: It is recommended that Antenatal Care (ANC) be initiated within the first trimester of pregnancy for essential interventions, such folic acid supplementation, to be effective. In Tanzania, only 24% of mothers attend their first ANC appointment during their first trimester. Studies have shown that women who have had contact with a health worker are more likely to attend their first antenatal care appointment earlier in pregnancy. Community health workers (CHWs) are in an opportune position to be this contact. This study explored CHW experiences with identifying women early in gestation to refer them to facility-based antenatal care services in Morogoro, Tanzania. METHODS: This qualitative study employed 10 semi-structured focus group discussions, 5 with 34 CHWs and 5 with 34 recently delivered women in three districts in Morogoro, Tanzania. A thematic analytical approach was used to identify emerging themes among the CHW and RDW responses. RESULTS: Study findings show CHWs play a major role in identifying pregnant women in their communities and linking them with health facilities. Lack of trust and other factors, however, affect early pregnancy identification by the CHWs. They utilize several methods to identify pregnant women, including: asking direct questions to households when collecting information on the national census, conducting frequent household visits and getting information about pregnant women from health facilities. CONCLUSIONS: We present a framework for the interaction of factors that affect CHWs' ability to identify pregnant women early in gestation. Further studies need to be conducted investigating optimal workload for CHWs, as well as reasons pregnant women might conceal their pregnancies.

The development and evaluation of a community-based clinical diagnosis tool and treatment regimen for postpartum sepsis in Bangladesh and Pakistan.

BACKGROUND: Postpartum sepsis accounts for most maternal deaths between three and seven days postpartum, when most mothers, even those who deliver in facilities, are at home. Case fatality rates for untreated women are very high. Newborns of ill women have substantially higher infection risk. METHODS/DESIGN: The objectives of this study are to: (1) create, field-test and validate a tool for community health workers to improve diagnostic accuracy of suspected puerperal sepsis; (2) measure incidence and identify associated risk factors and; (3) describe etiologic agents responsible and antibacterial susceptibility patterns. This prospective cohort study builds on the Aetiology of Neonatal Infection in South Asia study in three sites: Sylhet, Bangladesh and Karachi and Matiari, Pakistan. Formative research determined local knowledge of symptoms and signs of postpartum sepsis, and a systematic literature review was conducted to design a diagnostic tool for community health workers to use during ten postpartum home visits. Suspected postpartum sepsis cases were referred to study physicians for independent assessment, which permitted validation of the tool. Clinical specimens, including urine, blood, and endometrial material, were collected for etiologic assessment and antibiotic sensitivity. All women with puerperal sepsis were given appropriate antibiotics. DISCUSSION: This is the first large population-based study to expand community-based surveillance for diagnoses, referral and treatment of newborn sepsis to include maternal postpartum sepsis. Study activities will lead to development and validation of a diagnostic tool for use by community health workers in resource-poor countries. Understanding the epidemiology and microbiology of postpartum sepsis will inform prevention and treatment strategies and improve understanding of linkages between maternal and neonatal infections.

Can mothers recognize neonatal illness correctly? Comparison of maternal report and assessment by community health workers in rural Bangladesh.

OBJECTIVES: To validate maternal recognition of neonatal illnesses at home compared to assessment by community health workers (CHWs) during routine household surveillance for neonatal illness in rural Bangladesh. METHODS: Surveillance in the intervention arm of two cluster-randomized, controlled trials of newborn interventions conducted in Sylhet and Mirzapur districts of Bangladesh. CHWs promoted birth and newborn care preparedness during two prenatal visits, including recognition of neonatal illnesses. CHWs assessed 8472 neonates on post-natal days 0, 3, and 6 between 2004 and 2005 in Sylhet, and 7587 neonates on post-natal days 0, 2, 5, and 8 between 2004 and 2006 in Mirzapur. In both sites, CHW identified neonates with very severe disease (VSD), using clinical algorithms that included ascertainment of illness history reported by mother and observation of clinical signs of illness. We calculated sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value of maternal report of any illness sign compared to CHWs' assessments and classification of VSD. Analysis was restricted to mothers whose neonates were assessed by CHWs at home during the routine visit schedule. RESULTS: Maternal report of any signs had sensitivity of 24% and 20% and positive predictive value of 45% and 54% in Sylhet and Mirzapur, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal recognition of neonatal illnesses at home was poor in two rural areas in Bangladesh. Interventions need to be designed to improve maternal recognition, and routine post-natal assessment by CHWs at home may be an essential component of community-based newborn care to improve care-seeking for newborn illness.

Vitamin D status and acute lower respiratory infection in early childhood in Sylhet, Bangladesh.

AIM: Acute lower respiratory tract infection (ALRI) is the most important global cause of childhood death. Micronutrient deficiencies may increase the risk of ALRI. A case-control study was conducted to assess the association between vitamin D status and ALRI in rural Bangladesh. METHODS: Children aged 1-18 months hospitalized with ALRI (cases) were individually matched to controls on age, sex, and village (N = 25 pairs). The mean serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration [25(OH)D] in cases and controls was compared using paired t-test. The unadjusted and adjusted odds of ALRI were assessed by multivariate conditional logistic regression. RESULTS: Mean [25(OH)D] was significantly lower among ALRI cases than controls (29.1 nmol/L vs. 39.1 nmol/L; p = 0.015). The unadjusted odds of ALRI was halved for each 10 nmol/L increase in [25(OH)D] (OR 0.53, 95% CI 0.30-0.96). Adjustment for confounders increased the magnitude of the association. CONCLUSION: Vitamin D status was associated with early childhood ALRI in a matched case-control study in rural Bangladesh. Randomized trials may establish whether interventions to improve vitamin D status can reduce the burden of ALRI in early childhood.

Addition of isovitalex in chocolate agar for the isolation of Haemophilus influenzae.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVE: The reason for lack of data on burden of Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) in developing countries was mainly failure of detection of this fastidious organism in laboratories. Use of isovitalex (IVX) was suggested as an essential supplement for growing this organism. This study was carried out to investigate the impact of IVX supplementation to chocolate agar for detection of Hib. METHODS: Chocolate agar with and without supplementation of IVX was prepared. Clinical samples as well as reference strains of Hib were simultaneously cultured on both the media. RESULTS: H. influenzae isolates (N=194) were simultaneously grown on chocolate agar (CA) with and without isovitalex (IVX). Average colony size of H. influenzae on CA with IVX (CA-IVX) was larger only by 0.10 cm (range 0.05 to 0.16 cm) compared to CA alone. Addition of IVX to CA increased the cost of media by 2.1-fold. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION: Isovitalex is not essential for the isolation and growth of H. influenzae almost halving the cost.

Feasibility of community neonatal death audits in rural Uttar Pradesh, India.

OBJECTIVE: Medical audit is a widely promoted strategy in hospitals, but experience within community settings is scant. Community neonatal death audit is a form of audit, which involves a systematic analysis of the quality of care provided in the home, danger sign recognition and care seeking decision making for neonatal illness. This research was conducted in Uttar Pradesh, India, to investigate the feasibility and cultural acceptability of community neonatal death audits. STUDY DESIGN: During November-December 2004, we conducted three in-depth interviews with family members of deceased neonates, and six focus group discussions with family and community members. Three approaches were evaluated: in-depth interview with the family before engaging them in an audit with the community; preliminary meeting to build rapport with the family and community before conducting an audit; and audit with the family and community in a single focus group. Approaches were interactive processes, involving the community, to identify avoidable factors in a particular death and discuss solutions. RESULT: Carried out in a culturally sensitive and non-punitive manner, community neonatal death audit was found to be acceptable and feasible. All approaches provoked formal investigation by community members, and stimulated sharing of views, leading to the self-discovery that community perception was a cumulatively amplified effect of individual perceptions. Presence of an educated/experienced community member or health worker served as a catalyst. No one optimal approach was identified. CONCLUSION: Community neonatal audit is an acceptable approach that shows promise as an effective intervention for improving neonatal health outcomes.

Validation of accuracy and community acceptance of the BIRTHweigh III scale for categorizing newborn weight in rural India.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the accuracy and acceptability of a handheld scale prototype designed for nonliterate users to classify newborns into three weight categories (>or=2,500 g; 2,000 to 2,499 g; and <2,000 g). STUDY DESIGN: Weights of 1,100 newborns in Uttar Pradesh, India, were measured on the test scale and validated against a gold standard. Mothers, family members and community health stakeholders were interviewed to assess the acceptability of the test scale. RESULT: The test scale was highly sensitive and specific at classifying newborn weight (normal weight: 95.3 and 96.3%, respectively; low birth weight: 90.4 and 99.2%, respectively; very low birth weight: 91.7 and 98.4%, respectively). It was the overall agreement of the community that the test scale was more practical and easier to interpret than the gold standard. CONCLUSION: The BIRTHweigh III scale accurately identifies low birth weight and very low birth weight newborns to target weight-specific interventions. The scale is extremely practical and useful for resource-poor settings, especially those with low levels of literacy.

Delivery practices of traditional birth attendants in Dhaka slums, Bangladesh.

This paper describes associations among delivery-location, training of birth attendants, birthing practices, and early postpartum morbidity in women in slum areas of Dhaka, Bangladesh. During November 1993-May 1995, data on delivery-location, training of birth attendants, birthing practices, delivery-related complications, and postpartum morbidity were collected through interviews with 1,506 women, 489 home-based birth attendants, and audits in 20 facilities where the women from this study gave birth. Associations among maternal characteristics, birth practices, delivery-location, and early postpartum morbidity were specifically explored. Self-reported postpartum morbidity was associated with maternal characteristics, delivery-related complications, and some birthing practices. Dais with more experience were more likely to use potentially-harmful birthing practices which increased the risk of postpartum morbidity among women with births at home. Postpartum morbidity did not differ by birth-location. Safe motherhood programmes must develop effective strategies to discourage potentially-harmful home-based delivery practices demonstrated to contribute to morbidity.

Increasing spectrum in antimicrobial resistance of Shigella isolates in Bangladesh: resistance to azithromycin and ceftriaxone and decreased susceptibility to ciprofloxacin.

Antimicrobial resistance of Shigella isolates in Bangladesh, during 2001-2002, was studied and compared with that of 1991-1992 to identify the changes in resistance patterns and trends. A significant increase in resistance to trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole (from 52% to 72%, p < 0.01) and nalidixic acid (from 19% to 51%, p < 0.01) was detected. High, but unchanged, resistance to tetracycline, ampicillin, and chloramphenicol, low resistance to mecillinam (resistance 3%, intermediate 3%), and to emergence of resistance to azithromycin (resistance 16%, intermediate 62%) and ceftriaxone/cefixime (2%) were detected in 2001-2002. Of 266 recent isolates, 63% were resistant to > or =3 anti-Shigella drugs (multidrug-resistant [MDR]) compared to 52% of 369 strains (p < 0.007) in 1991-1992. Of 154 isolates tested by E-test in 2001-2002, 71% were nalidixic acid-resistant (minimum inhibitory concentration [MIC] > or =32 microg/mL) and had 10-fold higher MIC90 (0.25 microg/mL) to ciprofloxacin than that of nalidixic acid-susceptible strains exhibiting decreased ciprofloxacin susceptibility, which were detected as ciprofloxacin-susceptible and nalidixic acid-resistant by the disc-diffusion method. These strains were frequently associated with MDR traits. High modal MICs were observed to azithromycin (MIC 6 microg/mL) and nalidixic acid (MIC 128 micdrog/mL) and low to ceftriaxone (MIC 0.023 microg/mL). Conjugative R-plasmids-encoded extended-spectrum beta-lactamase was responsible for resistance to ceftriaxone/cefixime. The growing antimicrobial resistance of Shigella is worrying and mandates monitoring of resistance. Pivmecillinam or ciprofloxacin might be considered for treating shigellosis with caution.

Introduction of community-based skin-to-skin care in rural Uttar Pradesh, India.

OBJECTIVE: Two-thirds of women globally give birth at home, yet little data are available on use of skin-to-skin care (STSC) in the community. We describe the acceptability of STSC in rural Uttar Pradesh, India, and measured maternal, newborn, and ambient temperature in the home in order to inform strategies for introduction of STSC in the community. STUDY DESIGN: Community-based workers in intervention clusters implemented a community mobilization and behavior change communication program that promoted birth preparedness and essential newborn care, including adoption of STSC, with pregnant mothers, their families, and key influential community members. Acceptance of STSC was assessed through in-depth interviews and focus groups, and temperature was measured during home visits on day of life 0 or 1. RESULTS: Incidence of hypothermia (<36.5 degrees C) was high in both low birth weight (LBW) and normal birth weight (NBW) infants (49.2%, (361/733) and 43% (418/971), respectively). Mean body temperature of newborns was lower (P<0.01) in ambient temperatures <20 degrees C (35.9+/-1.4 degrees C, n=225) compared to > or =20 degrees C (36.5+/-0.9 degrees C, n=1450). Among hypothermic newborns, 42% (331/787) of their mothers had a lower temperature (range -6.7 to 0.1 degrees C, mean difference 0.4+/-1.2 degrees C). Acceptance of STSC was nearly universal. No adverse events from STSC were reported. STSC was perceived to prevent newborn hypothermia, enhance mother's capability to protect her baby from evil spirits, and make the baby more content. CONCLUSION: STSC was highly acceptable in rural India when introduced through appropriate cultural paradigms. STSC may be of benefit for all newborns and for many mothers as well. New approaches are needed for introduction of STSC in the community compared to the hospital.

Effect of community-based newborn care on cause-specific neonatal mortality in Sylhet district, Bangladesh: findings of a cluster-randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVES: Community-based maternal and newborn intervention packages have been shown to reduce neonatal mortality in resource-constrained settings. This analysis uses data from a large community-based cluster-randomized trial to assess the impact of a community-based package on cause-specific neonatal mortality and draws programmatic and policy implications. In addition, the study shows that cause-specific mortality estimates vary substantially based on the hierarchy used in assigning cause of death, which also has important implications for program planning. Therefore, understanding the methods of assigning causes of deaths is important, as is the development of new methodologies that account for multiple causes of death. The objective of this study was to estimate the effect of two service delivery strategies (home care and community care) for a community-based package of maternal and neonatal health interventions on cause-specific neonatal mortality rates in a rural district of Bangladesh. STUDY DESIGN: Within the general community of the Sylhet district in rural northeast Bangladesh. Pregnancy histories were collected from a sample of women in the study area during the year preceding the study (2002) and from all women who reported a pregnancy outcome during the intervention in years 2004 to 2005. All families that reported a neonatal death during these time periods were asked to complete a verbal autopsy interview. Expert algorithms with two different hierarchies were used to assign causes of neonatal death, varying in placement of the preterm/low birth weight category within the hierarchy (either third or last). The main outcome measure was cause-specific neonatal mortality. RESULT: Deaths because of serious infections in the home-care arm declined from 13.6 deaths per 1000 live births during the baseline period to 7.2 during the intervention period according to the first hierarchy (preterm placed third) and from 23.6 to 10.6 according to the second hierarchy (preterm placed last). CONCLUSION: This study confirms the high burden of neonatal deaths because of infection in low resource rural settings like Bangladesh, where most births occur at home in the absence of skilled birth attendance and care seeking for newborn illnesses is low. The study demonstrates that a package of community-based neonatal health interventions, focusing primarily on infection prevention and management, can substantially reduce infection-related neonatal mortality.

Prevalence and risk factors of chorioamnionitis in Dhaka, Bangladesh.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the association between chorioamnionitis, maternal risk factors and birth outcomes. STUDY DESIGN: A cross-sectional study of 600 pregnant women was conducted at a maternity center in Dhaka from January to October 2011. Outcomes included histologic, microbiologic and clinical chorioamnionitis. Log-binomial models assessed the association between risk factors and histologic chorioamnionitis (HC). RESULTS: Of the 552 women with placental specimens, 70 (12.7%) were classified with HC: 46 (65.7%) with and 24 (34.3%) without fetal involvement. HC was associated with non-physician care (relative risk [RR] 2.04, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.04 to 4.00), home slab or hanging latrine (RR 1.69, 95% CI 1.10 to 2.62), and lack of tetanus toxoid (RR 1.80, 95% CI 1.03 to 3.14). Women with fever (RR 2.30, 95% CI 1.18 to 4.50) or discolored amniotic fluid (RR 1.74, 95% CI 1.08 to 2.81) had a higher risk of HC. Microbiologic and clinical chorioamnionitis were unreliable HC measures. CONCLUSION: Prevalence of HC is high; many cases are not captured by clinical diagnosis or microbiologic cultures.

Delivery-related complications and early postpartum morbidity in Dhaka, Bangladesh.

OBJECTIVE: To describe delivery-related complications and postpartum morbidity of women living in slum areas of Dhaka, Bangladesh. METHOD: From November 1993 to May 1995, 1506 women were interviewed regarding delivery-related complications and postpartum morbidities. Operational definitions were applied to maternal reports to categorize serious delivery-related complications and postpartum morbidity. Corroborating information was identified from medical records for facility-based deliveries and physical examinations by female physicians 14 to 22 days postpartum. RESULT: Thirty-six percent of women described serious delivery-related complications and 75% of women reported postpartum morbidity. There were two maternal deaths among 1471 live births. When maternal reports were related to corroborating information, the proportion of women's reports of serious complications and morbidity appears reasonably accurate for some conditions. CONCLUSION: A large proportion of urban slum women in Dhaka experience serious delivery-related complications and/or postpartum morbidity. Information on delivery practices that contribute to morbidity and factors that influence appropriate care seeking is needed.

Household Animal and Human Medicine Use and Animal Husbandry Practices in Rural Bangladesh: Risk Factors for Emerging Zoonotic Disease and Antibiotic Resistance.

Animal antimicrobial use and husbandry practices increase risk of emerging zoonotic disease and antibiotic resistance. We surveyed 700 households to elicit information on human and animal medicine use and husbandry practices. Households that owned livestock (n = 265/459, 57.7%) reported using animal treatments 630 times during the previous 6 months; 57.6% obtained medicines, including antibiotics, from drug sellers. Government animal healthcare providers were rarely visited (9.7%), and respondents more often sought animal health care from pharmacies and village doctors (70.6% and 11.9%, respectively), citing the latter two as less costly and more successful based on past performance. Animal husbandry practices that could promote the transmission of microbes from animals to humans included the following: the proximity of chickens to humans (50.1% of households reported that the chickens slept in the bedroom); the shared use of natural bodies of water for human and animal bathing (78.3%); the use of livestock waste as fertilizer (60.9%); and gender roles that dictate that females are the primary caretakers of poultry and children (62.8%). In the absence of an effective animal healthcare system, villagers must depend on informal healthcare providers for treatment of their animals. Suboptimal use of antimicrobials coupled with unhygienic animal husbandry practices is an important risk factor for emerging zoonotic disease and resistant pathogens.

Infant growth patterns in the slums of Dhaka in relation to birth weight, intrauterine growth retardation, and prematurity.

BACKGROUND: Relations between size and maturity at birth and infant growth have been studied inadequately in Bangladesh, where the incidence of low birth weight is high and most infants are breast-fed. OBJECTIVE: This study was conducted to describe infant growth patterns and their relations to birth weight, intrauterine growth retardation, and prematurity. DESIGN: A total of 1654 infants born in selected low-socioeconomic areas of Dhaka, Bangladesh, were enrolled at birth. Weight and length were measured at birth and at 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 mo of age. RESULTS: The infants' mean birth weight was 2516 g, with 46.4% weighing <2500 g; 70% were small for gestational age (SGA) and 17% were premature. Among the SGA infants, 63% had adequate ponderal indexes. The mean weight of the study infants closely tracked the -2 SD curve of the World Health Organization pooled breast-fed sample. Weight differences by birth weight, SGA, or preterm categories were retained throughout infancy. Mean z scores based on the pooled breast-fed sample were -2.38, -1. 72, and -2.34 at birth, 3 mo, and 12 mo. Correlation analysis showed greater plasticity of growth in the first 3 mo of life than later in the first year. CONCLUSIONS: Infant growth rates were similar to those observed among breast-fed infants in developed countries. Most study infants experienced chronic intrauterine undernourishment. Catch-up growth was limited and weight at 12 mo was largely a function of weight at birth. Improvement of birth weight is likely to lead to significant gains in infant nutritional status in this population, although interventions in the first 3 mo are also likely to be beneficial.

Cell-mediated immune deficiency and malnutrition are independent risk factors for persistent diarrhea in Bangladeshi children.

A community-based longitudinal study was carried out at Matlab, Bangladesh, to investigate the magnitude of the problem of persistent diarrhea; 705 children aged < 5 y were followed, yielding 7300 child-months of observation in 1 y. Morbidity data were collected every fourth day by home visit, anthropometric status was determined monthly, and cell-mediated immune status was assessed every 3 mo. The incidence of persistent diarrhea was 34 episodes per 100 child-years; rates were highest in infancy and declined through the remainder of childhood. In a logistic-regression model, weight-for-height status and immune status were significant predictors of persistent diarrhea. Compared with those at zero Z score, children with weight-for-height at -2 would have a 3.5 times increased risk of persistent diarrhea. Compared with immunocompetent children, immunodeficient children had about twice the risk of developing persistent diarrhea. Thus, nutritional status and cell-mediated immune status were important independent risk factors for persistent diarrhea.

A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of the effect of zinc supplementation during pregnancy on pregnancy outcome in Bangladeshi urban poor.

BACKGROUND: Maternal zinc supplementation has been suggested as a potential intervention to reduce the incidence of low birth weight in developing countries. To date, placebo-controlled trials have all been performed in industrialized countries and the results are inconsistent. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate whether zinc supplementation in Bangladeshi urban poor during the last 2 trimesters of pregnancy was associated with pregnancy outcome. DESIGN: We conducted a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in which 559 women from Dhaka slums, stratified by parity between 12 and 16 wk of gestation, were randomly assigned to receive 30 mg elemental Zn/d (n = 269) or placebo (n = 290). Supplementation continued until delivery. Serum zinc was estimated at baseline and at 7 mo of gestation. Dietary intake was assessed at baseline and anthropometric measurements were made monthly. Weight, length, and gestational ages of 410 singleton newborns were measured within 72 h of birth. RESULTS: At 7 mo of gestation, serum zinc concentrations tended to be higher in the zinc-supplemented group than in the placebo group (15.9 +/- 4.4 compared with 15.2 +/- 4.3 micromol/L). No significant effect of treatment was observed on infant birth weight (2513 +/- 390 compared with 2554 +/- 393 g; NS) or on gestational age, infant length, or head, chest, or midupper arm circumference. The incidence and distribution of low birth weight, prematurity, and smallness for gestational age also did not differ significantly after zinc supplementation. CONCLUSIONS: Supplementation with 30 mg elemental Zn during the last 2 trimesters of pregnancy did not improve birth outcome in Bangladeshi urban poor. These results indicate that interventions with zinc supplementation alone are unlikely to reduce the incidence of low birth weight in Bangladesh.