Cancer Risk Assessment of Airborne PAHs Based on in Vitro Mixture Potency Factors.

Complex mixtures of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are common environmental pollutants associated with adverse human health effects including cancer. However, the risk of exposure to mixtures is difficult to estimate, and risk assessment by whole mixture potency evaluations has been suggested. To facilitate this, reliable in vitro based testing systems are necessary. Here, we investigated if activation of DNA damage signaling in vitro could be an endpoint for developing whole mixture potency factors (MPFs) for airborne PAHs. Activation of DNA damage signaling was assessed by phosphorylation of Chk1 and H2AX using Western blotting. To validate the in vitro approach, potency factors were determined for seven individual PAHs which were in very good agreement with established potency factors based on cancer data in vivo. Applying the method using Stockholm air PAH samples indicated MPFs with orders of magnitude higher carcinogenic potency than predicted by established in vivo-based potency factors. Applying the MPFs in cancer risk assessment suggested that 45.4 (6% of all) cancer cases per year in Stockholm are due to airborne PAHs. Applying established models resulted in <1 cancer case per year, which is far from expected levels. We conclude that our in vitro based approach for establishing MPFs could be a novel method to assess whole mixture samples of airborne PAHs to improve health risk assessment.

Automated clean-up, separation and detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in particulate matter extracts using a 2D-LC/2D-GC system: a method translation from two FIDs to two MS detectors.

An online two-dimensional (2D) liquid chromatography/2D gas chromatography system with two mass-selective detectors has been developed on the basis of a previous system with two flame ionization detectors. The method translation involved the change of carrier gas from hydrogen to helium, column dimension and detectors. The 2D system with two mass-selective detectors was validated with use of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) standards and two standard reference materials from air and diesel exhaust. Furthermore, the system was applied to a real sample, wood smoke particulates. The PAH values determined correlated well with the previous data and those from the National Institute of Standards and Technology. The system enhanced the benefits of the previous system, which were limited by the low detectability and lack of mass selectivity. This study shows an automated 2D system that is valid for PAH analysis of complex environmental samples directly from crude extracts. Graphical Abstract Schematic illustration showing on-line clean-up, separation and detection using 2D-LC/2D-GC/MS.

Detection of benz[j]aceanthrylene in urban air and evaluation of its genotoxic potential.

Benz[j]aceanthrylene (B[j]A) is a cyclopenta-fused polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon with strong mutagenic and carcinogenic effects. We have identified B[j]A in air particulate matter (PM) in samples collected in Stockholm, Sweden and in Limeira, Brazil using LC-GC/MS analysis. Determined concentrations ranged between 1.57 and 12.7 and 19.6-30.2 pg/m(3) in Stockholm and Limeira, respectively, which was 11-30 times less than benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) concentrations. Activation of the DNA damage response was evaluated after exposure to B[j]A in HepG2 cells in comparison to B[a]P. We found that significantly lower concentrations of B[j]A were needed for an effect on cell viability compared to B[a]P, and equimolar exposure resulted in significant more DNA damage with B[j]A. Additionally, levels of γH2AX, pChk1, p53, pp53, and p21 proteins were higher in response to B[j]A than B[a]P. On the basis of dose response induction of pChk1 and γH2AX, B[j]A potency was 12.5- and 33.3-fold higher than B[a]P, respectively. Although B[j]A levels in air were low, including B[j]A in the estimation of excess lifetime cancer risk increased the risk up to 2-fold depending on which potency factor for B[j]A was applied. Together, our results show that B[j]A could be an important contributor to the cancer risk of air PM.

Determination of oxygenated and native polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban dust and diesel particulate matter standard reference materials using pressurized liquid extraction and LC-GC/MS.

The objective of this study was to develop a novel analytical chemistry method, comprised of a coupled high-performance liquid chromatography-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry system (LC-GC/MS) with low detection limits and high selectivity, for the identification and determination of oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (OPAHs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in urban air and diesel particulate matter. The linear range of the four OPAHs, which include 9,10-anthraquinone, 4H-cyclopenta[def]phenanthrene-4-one, benzanthrone, and 7,12-benz[a]anthraquinone, was 0.7 pg-43.3 ng with limits of detection (LODs) and limits of quantification (LOQs) on the order of 0.2-0.8 and 0.7-1.3 pg, respectively. The LODs in this study are generally lower than values reported in the literature, which can be explained by using large-volume injection. The recoveries of the OPAHs spiked onto glass fiber filters using two different pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) methods were in the ranges of 84-107 and 67-110 %, respectively. The analytical protocols were validated using the following National Institute of Standards and Technology standard reference materials: SRM 1649a (Urban Dust), SRM 1650b (Diesel Particulate Matter), and SRM 2975 (Diesel Particulate Matter, Industrial Forklift). The measured mass fractions of the OPAHs in the standard reference materials (SRMs) in this present study are higher than the values from the literature, except for benzanthrone in SRM 1649a (Urban Dust). In addition to the OPAHs, 44 PAHs could be detected and quantified from the same particulate extract used in this protocol. Using data from the literature and applying a two-sided t test at the 5 % level using Bonferroni correction, significant differences were found between the tested PLE methods for individual PAHs. However, the measured mass fractions of the PAHs were comparable, similar to, or higher than those previously reported in the literature.

Acute exposure to wood smoke from incomplete combustion--indications of cytotoxicity.

BACKGROUND: Smoke from combustion of biomass fuels is a major risk factor for respiratory disease, but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. The aim of this study was to determine whether exposure to wood smoke from incomplete combustion would elicit airway inflammation in humans. METHODS: Fourteen healthy subjects underwent controlled exposures on two separate occasions to filtered air and wood smoke from incomplete combustion with PM1 concentration at 314 µg/m(3) for 3 h in a chamber. Bronchoscopy with bronchial wash (BW), bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and endobronchial mucosal biopsies was performed after 24 h. Differential cell counts and soluble components were analyzed, with biopsies stained for inflammatory markers using immunohistochemistry. In parallel experiments, the toxicity of the particulate matter (PM) generated during the chamber exposures was investigated in vitro using the RAW264.7 macrophage cell line. RESULTS: Significant reductions in macrophage, neutrophil and lymphocyte numbers were observed in BW (p < 0.01, <0.05, <0.05, respectively) following the wood smoke exposure, with a reduction in lymphocytes numbers in BAL fluid (<0.01. This unexpected cellular response was accompanied by decreased levels of sICAM-1, MPO and MMP-9 (p < 0.05, <0.05 and <0.01). In contrast, significant increases in submucosal and epithelial CD3+ cells, epithelial CD8+ cells and submucosal mast cells (p < 0.01, <0.05, <0.05 and <0.05, respectively), were observed after wood smoke exposure. The in vitro data demonstrated that wood smoke particles generated under these incomplete combustion conditions induced cell death and DNA damage, with only minor inflammatory responses. CONCLUSIONS: Short-term exposure to sooty PAH rich wood smoke did not induce an acute neutrophilic inflammation, a classic hallmark of air pollution exposure in humans. While minor proinflammatory lymphocytic and mast cells effects were observed in the bronchial biopsies, significant reductions in BW and BAL cells and soluble components were noted. This unexpected observation, combined with the in vitro data, suggests that wood smoke particles from incomplete combustion could be potentially cytotoxic. Additional research is required to establish the mechanism of this dramatic reduction in airway leukocytes and to clarify how this acute response contributes to the adverse health effects attributed to wood smoke exposure. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT01488500.

Persistent activation of DNA damage signaling in response to complex mixtures of PAHs in air particulate matter.

Complex mixtures of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are present in air particulate matter (PM) and have been associated with many adverse human health effects including cancer and respiratory disease. However, due to their complexity, the risk of exposure to mixtures is difficult to estimate. In the present study the effects of binary mixtures of benzo[a]pyrene (BP) and dibenzo[a,l]pyrene (DBP) and complex mixtures of PAHs in urban air PM extracts on DNA damage signaling was investigated. Applying a statistical model to the data we observed a more than additive response for binary mixtures of BP and DBP on activation of DNA damage signaling. Persistent activation of checkpoint kinase 1 (Chk1) was observed at significantly lower BP equivalent concentrations in air PM extracts than BP alone. Activation of DNA damage signaling was also more persistent in air PM fractions containing PAHs with more than four aromatic rings suggesting larger PAHs contribute a greater risk to human health. Altogether our data suggests that human health risk assessment based on additivity such as toxicity equivalency factor scales may significantly underestimate the risk of exposure to complex mixtures of PAHs. The data confirms our previous findings with PAH-contaminated soil (Niziolek-Kierecka et al., 2012) and suggests a possible role for Chk1 Ser317 phosphorylation as a biological marker for future analyses of complex mixtures of PAHs.

Automated clean-up, separation and detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in particulate matter extracts from urban dust and diesel standard reference materials using a 2D-LC/2D-GC system.

A multidimensional, on-line coupled liquid chromatographic/gas chromatographic system was developed for the quantification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). A two-dimensional liquid chromatographic system (2D-liquid chromatography (LC)), with three columns having different selectivities, was connected on-line to a two-dimensional gas chromatographic system (2D-gas chromatography (GC)). Samples were cleaned up by combining normal elution and column back-flush of the LC columns to selectively remove matrix constituents and isolate well-defined, PAH enriched fractions. Using this system, the sequential removal of polar, mono/diaromatic, olefinic and alkane compounds from crude extracts was achieved. The LC/GC coupling was performed using a fused silica transfer line into a programmable temperature vaporizer (PTV) GC injector. Using the PTV in the solvent vent mode, excess solvent was removed and the enriched PAH sample extract was injected into the GC. The 2D-GC setup consisted of two capillary columns with different stationary phase selectivities. Heart-cutting of selected PAH compounds in the first GC column (first dimension) and transfer of these to the second GC column (second dimension) increased the baseline resolutions of closely eluting PAHs. The on-line system was validated using the standard reference materials SRM 1649a (urban dust) and SRM 1975 (diesel particulate extract). The PAH concentrations measured were comparable to the certified values and the fully automated LC/GC system performed the clean-up, separation and detection of PAHs in 16 extracts in less than 24 h. The multidimensional, on-line 2D-LC/2D-GC system eliminated manual handling of the sample extracts and minimised the risk of sample loss and contamination, while increasing accuracy and precision.

Automobile tires--a potential source of highly carcinogenic dibenzopyrenes to the environment.

Eight tires were analyzed for 15 high molecular weight (HMW) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), using pressurized fluid extraction. The variability of the PAH concentrations determined between different tires was large; a factor of 22.6 between the lowest and the highest. The relative abundance of the analytes was quite similar regardless of tire. Almost all (92.3%) of the total extractable PAH content was attributed to five PAHs: benzo[ghi]perylene, coronene, indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene, benzo[e]pyrene, and benzo[a]pyrene. The difference in the measured PAH content between summer and winter tires varied substantially across manufacturers, making estimates of total vehicle fleet emissions very uncertain. However, when comparing different types of tires from the same manufacturer they had significantly (p = 0.05) different PAH content. Previously, there have been no data available for carcinogenic dibenzopyrene isomers in automobile tires. In this study, the four dibenzopyrene isomers dibenzo[a,l]pyrene, dibenzo[a,e]pyrene, dibenzo[a,i]pyrene, and dibenzo[a,h]pyrene constituted <2% of the sum of the 15 analyzed HMW PAHs. These findings show that automobile tires may be a potential previously unknown source of carcinogenic dibenzopyrenes to the environment.

Wood smoke particles from different combustion phases induce similar pro-inflammatory effects in a co-culture of monocyte and pneumocyte cell lines.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to particulate matter (PM) has been linked to several adverse cardiopulmonary effects, probably via biological mechanisms involving inflammation. The pro-inflammatory potential of PM depends on the particles' physical and chemical characteristics, which again depend on the emitting source. Wood combustion is a major source of ambient air pollution in Northern countries during the winter season. The overall aim of this study was therefore to investigate cellular responses to wood smoke particles (WSPs) collected from different phases of the combustion cycle, and from combustion at different temperatures. RESULTS: WSPs from different phases of the combustion cycle induced very similar effects on pro-inflammatory mediator release, cytotoxicity and cell number, whereas WSPs from medium-temperature combustion were more cytotoxic than WSPs from high-temperature incomplete combustion. Furthermore, comparisons of effects induced by native WSPs with the corresponding organic extracts and washed particles revealed that the organic fraction was the most important determinant for the WSP-induced effects. However, the responses induced by the organic fraction could generally not be linked to the content of the measured polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), suggesting that also other organic compounds were involved. CONCLUSION: The toxicity of WSPs seems to a large extent to be determined by stove type and combustion conditions, rather than the phase of the combustion cycle. Notably, this toxicity seems to strongly depend on the organic fraction, and it is probably associated with organic components other than the commonly measured unsubstituted PAHs.

Improved efficiency of extraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Standard Reference Material Diesel Particulate Matter (SRM 2975) using accelerated solvent extraction.

The efficiency of extraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with molecular masses of 252, 276, 278, 300, and 302 Da from standard reference material diesel particulate matter (SRM 2975) has been investigated using accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) with dichloromethane, toluene, methanol, and mixtures of toluene and methanol. Extraction of SRM 2975 using toluene/methanol (9:1, v/v) at maximum instrumental settings (200 °C, 20.7 MPa, and five extraction cycles) with 30-min extraction times resulted in the following elevations of the measured concentration when compared with the certified and reference concentrations reported by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST): benzo[b]fluoranthene, 46%; benzo[k]fluoranthene, 137%; benzo[e]pyrene, 103%; benzo[a]pyrene, 1,570%; perylene, 37%; indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene, 41%; benzo[ghi]perylene, 163%; and coronene, 361%. The concentrations of the following PAHs were comparable to the reference values assigned by NIST: indeno[1,2,3-cd]fluoranthene, dibenz[a,h]anthracene, and picene. The measured concentration of dibenzo[a,e]-pyrene was lower than the information value reported by the NIST. The measured concentrations of other highly carcinogenic PAHs (dibenzo[a,l]pyrene, dibenzo[a,i]pyrene, and dibenzo[a,h]pyrene) in SRM 2975 are also reported. Comparison of measurements using the optimized ASE method and using similar conditions to those applied by the NIST for the assignment of PAH concentrations in SRM 2975 indicated that the higher values obtained in the present study were associated with more complete extraction of PAHs from the diesel particulate material. Re-extraction of the particulate samples demonstrated that the deuterated internal standards were more readily recovered than the native PAHs, which may explain the lower values reported by the NIST. The analytical results obtained in the study demonstrated that the efficient extraction of PAHs from SRM 2975 is a critical requirement for the accurate determination of PAHs with high molecular masses in this standard reference material and that the optimization of extraction conditions is essential to avoid underestimation of the PAH concentrations. The requirement is especially relevant to the human carcinogen benzo[a]pyrene, which is commonly used as an indicator of the carcinogenic risk presented by PAH mixtures.

Similar polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon and genotoxicity profiles of atmospheric particulate matter from cities on three different continents.

The extractable organic material (EOM) from atmospheric total suspended particles (TSP) contains several organic compounds including non-substituted polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), alkyl-PAHs, and nitro-PAHs. These chemicals seem to be among the key drivers of TSP genotoxicity. We have shown previously that the mutagenic potencies of the EOM from Limeira, Stockholm, and Kyoto, cities with markedly different meteorological conditions and pollution sources are similar. Here we compare the profiles of non-substituted PAHs (27 congeners), alkyl-PAHs (15 congeners), and nitro-PAHs (7 congeners) from the same EOM samples from these cities. We also compared the genotoxicity profiles using comet and micronucleus assays in human bronchial epithelial cells. The profiles of PAHs, as well as the cytotoxic and genotoxic potencies when expressed in EOM, were quite similar among the studied cities. It seems that despite the differences in meteorological conditions and pollution sources of the cities, removal, mixing, and different atmospheric transformation processes may be contributing to the similarity of the PAHs composition and genotoxicity profiles. More studies are required to verify if this would be a general rule applicable to other cities. Although these profiles were similar for all three cities, the EOM concentration in the atmospheres is markedly different. Thus, the population of Limeira (∼10-fold more EOM/m3 than Stockholm and ∼6-fold more than Kyoto) is exposed to higher concentrations of genotoxic pollutants, and Kyoto's population is 1.5-fold more exposed than Stockholm's. Therefore, to reduce the risk of human exposure to TSP genotoxins, the volume of emissions needs to be reduced.

Decreased Snow Cover Stimulates Under-Ice Primary Producers but Impairs Methanotrophic Capacity.

Climate change scenarios anticipate decreased spring snow cover in boreal and subarctic regions. Forest lakes are abundant in these regions and substantial contributors of methane emissions. To investigate the effect of reduced snow cover, we experimentally removed snow from an anoxic frozen lake. We observed that the removal of snow increased light penetration through the ice, increasing water temperature and modifying microbial composition in the different depths. Chlorophyll a and b concentrations increased in the upper water column, suggesting activation of algal primary producers. At the same time, Chlorobiaceae, one of the key photosynthetic bacterial families in anoxic lakes, shifted to lower depths. Moreover, a decrease in the relative abundance of methanotrophs within the bacterial family Methylococcaceae was detected, concurrent with an increase in methane concentration in the water column. These results indicate that decreased snow cover impacts both primary production and methane production and/or consumption, which may ultimately lead to increased methane emissions after spring ice off.IMPORTANCE Small lakes are an important source of greenhouse gases in the boreal zone. These lakes are severely impacted by the winter season, when ice and snow cover obstruct gas exchange between the lake and the atmosphere and diminish light availability in the water column. Currently, climate change is resulting in reduced spring snow cover. A short-term removal of the snow from the ice stimulated algal primary producers and subsequently heterotrophic bacteria. Concurrently, the relative abundance of methanotrophic bacteria decreased and methane concentrations increased. Our results increase the general knowledge of microbial life under ice and, specifically, the understanding of the potential impact of climate change on boreal lakes.

Comparative mutagenic activity of atmospheric particulate matter from limeira, stockholm, and kyoto.

Atmospheric particulate matter (PM) organic fractions from urban centers are frequently mutagenic for the Salmonella/microsome assay. This mutagenicity is related to both primary and secondary pollutants, and meteorological conditions have great influence on the secondary pollutant's formation. Our objective was to compare the mutagenicity of atmospheric total suspended particulates (TSP) from three cities with marked different meteorological conditions and TSP concentrations: Limeira (Brazil) with 99.0 µg/m3 , Stockholm (Sweden) with 6.2 µg/m3 , and Kyoto (Japan) with 28.0 µg/m3 . For comparison, we used the same batch of filters, sample extraction method, and Salmonella/microsome testing protocol with 11 strains of Salmonella with and without metabolic activation. Samples were collected during winter and pooled into one single extract representing each city. All samples were mutagenic for all tested strains, except for TA102. Based on the strain's selectivity, nitroarenes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and aromatic amines play a predominant role in the mutagenicity of these samples. The mutagenic potencies expressed by mass of extracted organic material (EOM; revertants/µg EOM) were similar (~twofold difference) among the cities, despite differences in meteorological conditions and pollution sources. In contrast, the mutagenic potencies expressed by air volume (rev/m3 ) varied ~20-fold, with Limeira > Kyoto ≈ Stockholm. These results are the first systematic assessment of air mutagenicity from cities on three continents using the same protocols. The results confirm that the mutagenic potency expressed by EOM mass is similar regardless of continent of origin, whereas the mutagenic potency expressed by air volume can vary by orders of magnitude. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 2019. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Determination of 252-302 Da and tentative identification of 316-376 Da polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Standard Reference Materials 1649a Urban Dust and 1650b and 2975 Diesel Particulate Matter by accelerated solvent extraction-HPLC-GC-MS.

We have assessed and compared the extraction recoveries of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with molecular weights of 252, 276, 278, 300 and 302 from diesel particulate matter (PM) and urban air particles using ultrasonically assisted extraction and accelerated solvent extraction methods, and evaluated the effects of sample and treatment parameters. The results show that accelerated solvent extraction can extract PAHs more efficiently from diesel PM than ultrasonically assisted extraction. They also show that PAHs are more difficult to extract from diesel PM than from urban air particles. Using toluene and maximum instrumental settings (200 degrees C, 3,000 psi and five extraction cycles) with 30-min static extraction times > 85% of the analytes were estimated to be extracted from the diesel particles, but four extraction cycles with just 5-min static extraction times under these conditions seem to be sufficient to extract > 95% of the analytes from the urban air particles. The accelerated solvent extraction method was validated using the Standard Reference Materials (SRM) 1649a, Urban Dust, and SRM 2975 and SRM 1650a, Diesel Particulate Matter, from the US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). PAH concentrations determined by on-line high-performance liquid chromatography-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-GC-MS) following the developed accelerated solvent extraction method were generally higher than the certified and reference NIST values and concentrations reported in the literature (e.g. the estimated concentration of benzo[a]pyrene in SRM 2975 was 15-fold higher than the NIST-certified value), probably because the extraction recoveries were higher than in previous studies. The developed accelerated solvent extraction method was used to analyse high molecular (HMW) weight PAHs (MW > 302) in the investigated SRMs, and more than 170 (SRM 1649a), 80 (SRM 1650b) and 60 (SRM 2975) potential high molecular weight PAHs were tentatively identified in them, with molecular weights (depending on the SRM sample analysed) of 316, 326, 328, 340, 342, 350, 352, 366, 374 and 376. This is, to our knowledge, the first study to tentatively report PAHs with molecular weights of 316, 326, 328, 342, 350, 352, 366 and 376 in diesel particulate matter. GC-MS chromatograms obtained in selected ion monitoring mode (extracted ions for the abovementioned m/z) and full-scan mass spectra of tentatively identified high molecular weight PAHs are shown in the Electronic supplementary material.

Tire tread wear particles in ambient air--a previously unknown source of human exposure to the biocide 2-mercaptobenzothiazole.

Urban particulate matter (PM), asphalt, and tire samples were investigated for their content of benzothiazole and benzothiazole derivates. The purpose of this study was to examine whether wear particles, i.e., tire tread wear or road surface wear, could contribute to atmospheric concentrations of benzothiazole derivatives. Airborne particulate matter (PM10) sampled at a busy street in Stockholm, Sweden, contained on average 17 pg/m(3) benzothiazole and 64 pg/m(3) 2-mercaptobenzothiazole, and the total suspended particulate-associated benzothiazole and 2-mercaptobenzothiazole concentrations were 199 and 591 pg/m(3), respectively. This indicates that tire tread wear may be a major source of these benzothiazoles to urban air PM in Stockholm. Furthermore, 2-mercaptobenzothiazole was determined in urban air particulates for the first time in this study, and its presence in inhalable PM10 implies that the human exposure to this biocide is underestimated. This calls for a revision of the risk assessments of 2-mercaptobenzothiazole exposure to humans which currently is limited to occupational exposure.

Benzo[a]pyrene-specific online high-performance liquid chromatography fractionation of air particulate extracts - a tool for evaluating biological interactions.

Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) is a known human carcinogen and is commonly used as a surrogate for assessing the carcinogenic risk posed by complex mixtures of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) present in air particulate matter (PM). However, studies have shown that using B[a]P as a surrogate may underestimate the carcinogenic potential of PAH mixtures, as the risk assessment approach does not consider interaction effects. Thus, toxicological studies using B[a]P to assess its carcinogenic potential in environmentally derived complex mixtures, as opposed to single compound experiments, could improve risk assessment. The intention of the present study was to develop an online HPLC fractionation system for the selective removal of B[a]P from air PM extracts. Two serial pyrenylethyl (PYE) columns enabled selective separation of B[a]P from its isomers and other PAHs as well as a short fractionation cycle of 30min. One run consisted of three collection steps: the first fraction contained PAHs eluting earlier than B[a]P, the second contained B[a]P and the last contained later-eluting PAHs. The selectivity and recovery of the system was investigated using extracts of Stockholm air PM samples. The overall recovery for all PAHs was approximately 80%, and the system proved to be selective, as it removed 94% of B[a]P and less than 3% of benzo[b]fluoranthene from the complex PAH mixture. Exposing human cells to blanks generated by the fractionation system did not induce cytotoxicity or DNA damage signalling. In conclusion, the online HPLC system was selective for B[a]P fractionation whilst minimising run-to-run variation and allowing repeated fractionations for larger samples due to its relatively short run time.

Sensitivity of Salmonella YG5161 for detecting PAH-associated mutagenicity in air particulate matter.

The Salmonella/microsome assay is the most used assay for the evaluation of air particulate matter (PM) mutagenicity and a positive correlation between strain TA98 responses and benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) levels in PM has been found. However, it seems that the major causes of PM mutagenicity in this assay are the nitro and oxy-PAHs. Salmonella YG5161, a 30-times more responsive strain to B[a]P has been developed. To verify if YG5161 strain was sufficiently sensitive to detect mutagenicity associated with B[a]P mutagenicity, PM samples were collected in Brazil and Sweden, extracted with toluene and tested in the Salmonella/microsome microsuspension assay. PAHs and B[a]P were determined and the extracts were tested with YG5161 and its parental strain TA1538. The extracts were also tested with YG1041 and its parental strain TA98. For sensitivity comparisons, we tested B[a]P and 1-nitropyrene (1-NP) using the same conditions. The minimal effective dose of B[a]P was 155 ng/plate for TA1538 and 7 ng/plate for YG5161. Although the maximum tested dose, 10 m(3) /plate containing 9 ng of B[a]P in the case of Brazilian sample, was sufficient to elicit a response in YG5161, mutagenicity was detected at a dose as low as 1 m(3) /plate (0.9 ng). This is probably caused by nitro-compounds that have been shown to be even more potent than B[a]P for YG5161. It seems that the mutagenicity of B[a]P present in PM is not detectable even with the use of YG5161 unless more efficient separation to remove the nitro-compounds from the PAH extract is performed.

Determination of benzo[a]pyrene and dibenzopyrenes in a Chinese coal fly ash certified reference material.

Air pollution from coal combustion is of great concern in China because coal is the country's principal source of energy and it has been estimated that coal combustion is one of the main sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) emissions in the nation. This study reports the concentrations of 15 PAHs including benzo[a]pyrene, dibenzo[a,l]pyrene, dibenzo[a,e]pyrene, dibenzo[a,i]pyrene and dibenzo[a,h]pyrene in a coal fly ash certified reference material (CRM) from China. To the best of our knowledge, dibenzo[a,l]pyrene, dibenzo[a,i]pyrene and dibenzo[a,h]pyrene concentrations in coal fly ash particles have not previously been reported. Benzo[a]pyrene is the only one of the studied hydrocarbons whose concentration in the coal fly ash CRM had previously been certified. The concentration of this species measured in this present work was twice the certified value. This is probably because of the exhaustive accelerated solvent extraction method employed. Consecutive extractions indicated an extraction recovery in excess of 95% for benzo[a]pyrene. For the other determined PAHs, repeat extractions indicated recoveries above 90%.

Identification and determination of highly carcinogenic dibenzopyrene isomers in air particulate samples from a street canyon, a rooftop, and a subway station in Stockholm.

This study presents determined levels of the highly carcinogenic dibenzopyrene isomers dibenzo(a,l)pyrene, dibenzo(a,e)pyrene, dibenzo(a,l)pyrene, and dibenzo(a,h)pyrene as well as three other polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)--benzo(a)pyrene, perylene and coronene--in ambient particulate material samples from a street canyon, a rooftop, and an underground subway station in Stockholm, Sweden. To our knowledge, these are the first reported determinations of dibenzopyrene isomers in air particles from either Stockholm or a subway station. Taking into account both concentration and toxic equivalence factors (TEFs), the PAH with the highest carcinogenic potency in the analyzed samples was dibenzo(a,l)pyrene, and the sum carcinogenic potency of the determined dibenzopyrenes was about 1-4 times higher than that of benzo(a)pyrene in the analyzed samples. These findings indicate that it is important to analyze the dibenzopyrene isomers as well as benzo(a)pyrene; the common approach of using benzo(a)pyrene as an indicator substance could lead to underestimates of the potential carcinogenic potency of PAHs in ambient air. The results also indicate that the relative carcinogenic potency of the determined dibenzopyrenes and benzo(a)pyrene in air particles from Stockholm is similar to that of air particles sampled in Washington in 1976-1977, despite general improvements in air quality in the intervening period. However, more data are needed to characterize temporal variations in dibenzopyrene levels in locations such as subway stations, suburbs, road tunnels, and metropolitan areas. There is also a need to identify and characterize both stationary and mobile PAH sources with respect to emission of dibenzopyrene isomers.

Determination of dibenzopyrenes in standard reference materials (SRM) 1649a, 1650, and 2975 using ultrasonically assisted extraction and LC-GC-MS.

A method has been developed for analysis of the highly potent polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) carcinogens dibenzo(a,l)pyrene, dibenzo(a,h)pyrene, and dibenzo(a,i)pyrene (molecular weight 302) present in small amounts in diesel and air particulate material. The method can also be used for analysis of the PAH benzo(a)pyrene, coronene, and perylene, for which reference and certified values are available for the standard reference materials used for validation of the method--SRM 1649a (urban dust) and SRM 2975 (diesel particulate matter). The only NIST values that have been published for these dibenzopyrene isomers in the analyzed SRM are reference values for dibenzo(a,i)pyrene and dibenzo(a,h)pyrene in SRM 1649a. The concentrations determined in the SRM were in good agreement with reported NIST-certified and reference values and other concentrations reported in the literature. Standard reference material 1650 (diesel particulate matter) was also analyzed. The method could not, however, be validated using this material because certification of SRM 1650 had expired. The method is based on ultrasonically assisted extraction of the particulate material, then silica SPE pre-separation and isolation, and, separation and detection by hyphenated LC-GC-MS. The method is relatively rapid and requires only approximately 1-5 mg SRM particulate material to identify and quantify the analytes. Low extraction recoveries for the analytes, in particular the dibenzopyrenes, when extracting diesel SRM 2975 and 1650 resulted, however, in the dibenzopyrenes being present in amounts near their limits of quantifications in these samples. The method's limit of quantification (LOQ), based on analyses of SRM 1649a, is in the range 10-77 pg. By use of this method more than 25 potential PAH isomers with a molecular weight of 302 could be separated.