Linking enlarged choroid plexus with plasma analyte and structural phenotypes in clinical high risk for psychosis: A multisite neuroimaging study.

BACKGROUND: Choroid plexus (ChP) enlargement exists in first-episode and chronic psychosis, but whether enlargement occurs before psychosis onset is unknown. This study investigated whether ChP volume is enlarged in individuals with clinical high-risk (CHR) for psychosis and whether these changes are related to clinical, neuroanatomical, and plasma analytes. METHODS: Clinical and neuroimaging data from the North American Prodrome Longitudinal Study 2 (NAPLS2) was used for analysis. 509 participants (169 controls, 340 CHR) were recruited. Conversion status was determined after 2-years of follow-up, with 36 psychosis converters. The lateral ventricle ChP was manually segmented from baseline scans. A subsample of 31 controls and 53 CHR had plasma analyte and neuroimaging data. RESULTS: Compared to controls, CHR (d = 0.23, p = 0.017) and non-converters (d = 0.22, p = 0.03) demonstrated higher ChP volumes, but not in converters. In CHR, greater ChP volume correlated with lower cortical (r = -0.22, p < 0.001), subcortical gray matter (r = -0.21, p < 0.001), and total white matter volume (r = -0.28,p < 0.001), as well as larger lateral ventricle volume (r = 0.63,p < 0.001). Greater ChP volume correlated with makers functionally associated with the lateral ventricle ChP in CHR [CCL1 (r = -0.30, p = 0.035), ICAM1 (r = 0.33, p = 0.02)], converters [IL1ß (r = 0.66, p = 0.004)], and non-converters [BMP6 (r = -0.96, p < 0.001), CALB1 (r = -0.98, p < 0.001), ICAM1 (r = 0.80, p = 0.003), SELE (r = 0.59, p = 0.026), SHBG (r = 0.99, p < 0.001), TNFRSF10C (r = 0.78, p = 0.001)]. CONCLUSIONS: CHR and non-converters demonstrated significantly larger ChP volumes compared to controls. Enlarged ChP was associated with neuroanatomical alterations and analyte markers functionally associated with the ChP. These findings suggest that the ChP may be a key an important biomarker in CHR.

Accelerated cortical thinning precedes and predicts conversion to psychosis: The NAPLS3 longitudinal study of youth at clinical high-risk.

Progressive grey matter loss has been demonstrated among clinical high-risk (CHR) individuals who convert to psychosis, but it is unknown whether these changes occur prior to psychosis onset. Identifying illness-related neurobiological mechanisms that occur prior to conversion is essential for targeted early intervention. Among participants in the third wave of the North American Prodrome Longitudinal Study (NAPLS3), this report investigated if steeper cortical thinning was observable prior to psychosis onset among CHR individuals who ultimately converted (CHR-C) and assessed the shortest possible time interval in which rates of cortical thinning differ between CHR-C, CHR non-converters (CHR-NC), and health controls (HC). 338 CHR-NC, 42 CHR-C, and 62 HC participants (age 19.3±4.2, 44.8% female, 52.5% racial/ethnic minority) completed up to 5 MRI scans across 8 months. Accelerated thinning among CHR-C compared to CHR-NC and HC was observed in multiple prefrontal, temporal, and parietal cortical regions. CHR-NC also exhibited accelerated cortical thinning compared to HC in several of these areas. Greater percent decrease in cortical thickness was observed among CHR-C compared to other groups across 2.9±1.8 months, on average, in several cortical areas. ROC analyses discriminating CHR-C from CHR-NC by percent thickness change in a left hemisphere region of interest, scanner, age, age2, and sex had an AUC of 0.74, with model predictive power driven primarily by percent thickness change. Findings indicate that accelerated cortical thinning precedes psychosis onset and differentiates CHR-C from CHR-NC and HC across short time intervals. Mechanisms underlying cortical thinning may provide novel treatment targets prior to psychosis onset.

Intelligence, educational attainment, and brain structure in those at familial high-risk for schizophrenia or bipolar disorder.

First-degree relatives of patients diagnosed with schizophrenia (SZ-FDRs) show similar patterns of brain abnormalities and cognitive alterations to patients, albeit with smaller effect sizes. First-degree relatives of patients diagnosed with bipolar disorder (BD-FDRs) show divergent patterns; on average, intracranial volume is larger compared to controls, and findings on cognitive alterations in BD-FDRs are inconsistent. Here, we performed a meta-analysis of global and regional brain measures (cortical and subcortical), current IQ, and educational attainment in 5,795 individuals (1,103 SZ-FDRs, 867 BD-FDRs, 2,190 controls, 942 schizophrenia patients, 693 bipolar patients) from 36 schizophrenia and/or bipolar disorder family cohorts, with standardized methods. Compared to controls, SZ-FDRs showed a pattern of widespread thinner cortex, while BD-FDRs had widespread larger cortical surface area. IQ was lower in SZ-FDRs (d = -0.42, p = 3 × 10-5 ), with weak evidence of IQ reductions among BD-FDRs (d = -0.23, p = .045). Both relative groups had similar educational attainment compared to controls. When adjusting for IQ or educational attainment, the group-effects on brain measures changed, albeit modestly. Changes were in the expected direction, with less pronounced brain abnormalities in SZ-FDRs and more pronounced effects in BD-FDRs. To conclude, SZ-FDRs and BD-FDRs show a differential pattern of structural brain abnormalities. In contrast, both had lower IQ scores and similar school achievements compared to controls. Given that brain differences between SZ-FDRs and BD-FDRs remain after adjusting for IQ or educational attainment, we suggest that differential brain developmental processes underlying predisposition for schizophrenia or bipolar disorder are likely independent of general cognitive impairment.

The Pediatric Imaging, Neurocognition, and Genetics (PING) Data Repository.

The main objective of the multi-site Pediatric Imaging, Neurocognition, and Genetics (PING) study was to create a large repository of standardized measurements of behavioral and imaging phenotypes accompanied by whole genome genotyping acquired from typically-developing children varying widely in age (3 to 20 years). This cross-sectional study produced sharable data from 1493 children, and these data have been described in several publications focusing on brain and cognitive development. Researchers may gain access to these data by applying for an account on the PING portal and filing a data use agreement. Here we describe the recruiting and screening of the children and give a brief overview of the assessments performed, the imaging methods applied, the genetic data produced, and the numbers of cases for whom different data types are available. We also cite sources of more detailed information about the methods and data. Finally we describe the procedures for accessing the data and for using the PING data exploration portal.

Brain imaging during the transition from psychosis prodrome to schizophrenia.

Neuroimaging studies have identified patterns of brain abnormalities in various stages of schizophrenia, but whether these abnormalities reflect primary factors associated with the causes of illness or secondary phenomena such as medications has been unclear. Recent work conducted within the prodromal risk paradigm suggests that progressive change in brain structure and function occurs around the time when clinically high-risk individuals transition into full-blown psychosis, effects that cannot be explained by exposure to medications or illness chronicity. This article reviews recent work bearing on the question of the timing of onset and course of brain changes, focusing on structural MRI, diffusion tensor imaging, and resting state connectivity MRI, in association with the onset and course of psychosis. We conclude with a consideration of potential mechanisms underlying progressive tissue changes during the prodromal phase of schizophrenia and implications for prevention.

Long-term influence of normal variation in neonatal characteristics on human brain development.

It is now recognized that a number of cognitive, behavioral, and mental health outcomes across the lifespan can be traced to fetal development. Although the direct mediation is unknown, the substantial variance in fetal growth, most commonly indexed by birth weight, may affect lifespan brain development. We investigated effects of normal variance in birth weight on MRI-derived measures of brain development in 628 healthy children, adolescents, and young adults in the large-scale multicenter Pediatric Imaging, Neurocognition, and Genetics study. This heterogeneous sample was recruited through geographically dispersed sites in the United States. The influence of birth weight on cortical thickness, surface area, and striatal and total brain volumes was investigated, controlling for variance in age, sex, household income, and genetic ancestry factors. Birth weight was found to exert robust positive effects on regional cortical surface area in multiple regions as well as total brain and caudate volumes. These effects were continuous across birth weight ranges and ages and were not confined to subsets of the sample. The findings show that (i) aspects of later child and adolescent brain development are influenced at birth and (ii) relatively small differences in birth weight across groups and conditions typically compared in neuropsychiatric research (e.g., Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, schizophrenia, and personality disorders) may influence group differences observed in brain parameters of interest at a later stage in life. These findings should serve to increase our attention to early influences.

Multimodal imaging of the self-regulating developing brain.

Self-regulation refers to the ability to control behavior, cognition, and emotions, and self-regulation failure is related to a range of neuropsychiatric problems. It is poorly understood how structural maturation of the brain brings about the gradual improvement in self-regulation during childhood. In a large-scale multicenter effort, 735 children (4-21 y) underwent structural MRI for quantification of cortical thickness and surface area and diffusion tensor imaging for quantification of the quality of major fiber connections. Brain development was related to a standardized measure of cognitive control (the flanker task from the National Institutes of Health Toolbox), a critical component of self-regulation. Ability to inhibit responses and impose cognitive control increased rapidly during preteen years. Surface area of the anterior cingulate cortex accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in cognitive performance. This finding is intriguing, because characteristics of the anterior cingulum are shown to be related to impulse, attention, and executive problems in neurodevelopmental disorders, indicating a neural foundation for self-regulation abilities along a continuum from normality to pathology. The relationship was strongest in the younger children. Properties of large-fiber connections added to the picture by explaining additional variance in cognitive control. Although cognitive control was related to surface area of the anterior cingulate independently of basic processes of mental speed, the relationship between white matter quality and cognitive control could be fully accounted for by speed. The results underscore the need for integration of different aspects of brain maturation to understand the foundations of cognitive development.

Linguistic and non-linguistic markers of disorganization in psychotic illness.

BACKGROUND: Disorganization, presenting as impairment in thought, language and goal-directed behavior, is a core multidimensional syndrome of psychotic disorders. This study examined whether scalable computational measures of spoken language, and smartphone usage pattern, could serve as digital biomarkers of clinical disorganization symptoms. METHODS: We examined in a longitudinal cohort of adults with a psychotic disorder, the associations between clinical measures of disorganization and computational measures of 1) spoken language derived from monthly, semi-structured, recorded clinical interviews; and 2) smartphone usage pattern derived via passive sensing technologies over the month prior to the interview. The language features included speech quantity, rate, fluency, and semantic regularity. The smartphone features included data missingness and phone usage during sleep time. The clinical measures consisted of the Positive and Negative Symptom Scale (PANSS) conceptual disorganization, difficulty in abstract thinking, and poor attention, items. Mixed linear regression analyses were used to estimate both fixed and random effects. RESULTS: Greater severity of clinical symptoms of conceptual disorganization was associated with greater verbosity and more disfluent speech. Greater severity of conceptual disorganization was also associated with greater missingness of smartphone data, and greater smartphone usage during sleep time. While the observed associations were significant across the group, there was also significant variation between individuals. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that digital measures of speech disfluency may serve as scalable markers of conceptual disorganization. The findings warrant further investigation into the use of recorded interviews and passive sensing technologies to assist in the characterization and tracking of psychotic illness.

Discriminatory experiences predict neuroanatomical changes and anxiety among healthy individuals and those at clinical high risk for psychosis.

Individuals face discrimination based on characteristics including race/ethnicity, gender, age, and disability. Discriminatory experiences (DE) are associated with poor psychological health in the general population and with worse outcomes among individuals at clinical high risk for psychosis (CHR). Though the brain is sensitive to stress, and brain structural change is a well-documented precursor to psychosis, potential relationships between DE and brain structure among CHR or healthy individuals are not known. This report assessed whether lifetime DE are associated with cortical thinning and clinical outcomes across time, after controlling for discrimination-related demographic factors among CHR individuals who ultimately do (N = 57) and do not convert to psychosis (N = 451), and healthy comparison (N = 208) participants in the North American Prodrome Longitudinal Study 2. Results indicate that DE are associated with thinner cortex across time in several cortical areas. Thickness in several right hemisphere regions partially mediates associations between DE and subsequent anxiety symptoms, but not attenuated positive symptoms of psychosis. This report provides the first evidence to date of an association between DE and brain structure in both CHR and healthy comparison individuals. Results also suggest that thinner cortex across time in areas linked with DE may partially explain associations between DE and cross-diagnostic indicators of psychological distress.

Progressive reconfiguration of resting-state brain networks as psychosis develops: Preliminary results from the North American Prodrome Longitudinal Study (NAPLS) consortium.

Mounting evidence has shown disrupted brain network architecture across the psychosis spectrum. However, whether these changes relate to the development of psychosis is unclear. Here, we used graph theoretical analysis to investigate longitudinal changes in resting-state brain networks in samples of 72 subjects at clinical high risk (including 8 cases who converted to full psychosis) and 48 healthy controls drawn from the North American Prodrome Longitudinal Study (NAPLS) consortium. We observed progressive reduction in global efficiency (P = 0.006) and increase in network diversity (P = 0.001) in converters compared with non-converters and controls. More refined analysis separating nodes into nine key brain networks demonstrated that these alterations were primarily driven by progressively diminished local efficiency in the default-mode network (P = 0.004) and progressively enhanced node diversity across all networks (P < 0.05). The change rates of network efficiency and network diversity were significantly correlated (P = 0.003), suggesting these changes may reflect shared neural mechanisms. In addition, change rates of global efficiency and node diversity were significantly correlated with change rate of cortical thinning in the prefrontal cortex in converters (P < 0.03) and could be predicted by visuospatial memory scores at baseline (P < 0.04). These results provide preliminary evidence for longitudinal reconfiguration of resting-state brain networks during psychosis development and suggest that decreased network efficiency, reflecting an increase in path length between nodes, and increased network diversity, reflecting a decrease in the consistency of functional network organization, may be implicated in the progression to full psychosis.

Cortical abnormalities in youth at clinical high-risk for psychosis: Findings from the NAPLS2 cohort.

In a recent machine learning study classifying "brain age" based on cross-sectional neuroanatomical data, clinical high-risk (CHR) individuals were observed to show deviation from the normal neuromaturational pattern, which in turn was predictive of greater risk of conversion to psychosis and a pattern of stably poor functional outcome. These effects were unique to cases who were between 12 and 17 years of age when their prodromal and psychotic symptoms began, suggesting that neuroanatomical deviance observable at the point of ascertainment of a CHR syndrome marks risk for an early onset form of psychosis. In the present study, we sought to clarify the pattern of neuroanatomical deviance linked to this "early onset" form of psychosis and whether this deviance is associated with poorer premorbid functioning. T1 MRI scans from 378 CHR individuals and 190 healthy controls (HC) from the North American Prodrome Longitudinal Study (NAPLS2) were analyzed. Widespread smaller cortical volume was observed among CHR individuals compared with HC at baseline evaluation, particularly among the younger group (i.e., those who were 12 to 17 years of age). Moreover, the younger CHR individuals who converted or presented worsened clinical symptoms at follow-up (within 2 years) exhibited smaller surface area in rostral anterior cingulate, lateral and medial prefrontal regions, and parahippocampal gyrus relative to the younger CHR individuals who remitted or presented a stable pattern of prodromal symptoms at follow-up. In turn, poorer premorbid functioning in childhood was associated with smaller surface area in medial orbitofrontal, lateral frontal, rostral anterior cingulate, precuneus, and temporal regions. Together with our prior report, these results are consistent with the view that neuroanatomical deviance manifesting in early adolescence marks vulnerability to a form of psychosis presenting with poor premorbid adjustment, an earlier age of onset (generally prior to the age of 18 years), and poor long-term outcome.

Adding a neuroanatomical biomarker to an individualized risk calculator for psychosis: A proof-of-concept study.

In a recent study, a neuroanatomical-based age prediction model observed neuromaturational deviance among clinical high-risk individuals who developed psychosis. Here we aimed to investigate whether incorporating "brain age gap" (discrepancy between neuroanatomical-based predicted age and chronological age) to the North American Prodromal Longitudinal Study risk calculator would enhance prediction of psychosis conversion. The effect of brain age gap was significant (HR = 1.21, P = 0.047), but its predictive variance was found to overlap entirely with age at ascertainment, consistent with the view that greater brain-age gap and earlier age at onset of prodromal symptoms are correlated indicators of insidious-onset forms of psychosis.

Altered Brain Activation During Memory Retrieval Precedes and Predicts Conversion to Psychosis in Individuals at Clinical High Risk.

Memory deficits are a hallmark of psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia. However, whether the neural dysfunction underlying these deficits is present before the onset of illness and potentially predicts conversion to psychosis is unclear. In this study, we investigated brain functional alterations during memory processing in a sample of 155 individuals at clinical high risk (including 18 subjects who later converted to full psychosis) and 108 healthy controls drawn from the second phase of the North American Prodrome Longitudinal Study (NAPLS-2). All participants underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging with a paired-associate memory paradigm at the point of recruitment and were clinically followed up for approximately 2 years. We found that at baseline, subjects at high risk showed significantly higher activation during memory retrieval in the prefrontal, parietal, and bilateral temporal cortices (PFWE < .035). This effect was more pronounced in converters than nonconverters and was particularly manifested in unmedicated subjects (P < .001). The hyperactivation was significantly correlated with retrieval reaction time during scan in converters (P = .009) but not in nonconverters and controls, suggesting an exaggerated retrieval effort. These findings suggest that hyperactivation during memory retrieval may mark processes associated with conversion to psychosis, and such measures have potential as biomarkers for psychosis prediction.

The Association Between Familial Risk and Brain Abnormalities Is Disease Specific: An ENIGMA-Relatives Study of Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder.

BACKGROUND: Schizophrenia and bipolar disorder share genetic liability, and some structural brain abnormalities are common to both conditions. First-degree relatives of patients with schizophrenia (FDRs-SZ) show similar brain abnormalities to patients, albeit with smaller effect sizes. Imaging findings in first-degree relatives of patients with bipolar disorder (FDRs-BD) have been inconsistent in the past, but recent studies report regionally greater volumes compared with control subjects. METHODS: We performed a meta-analysis of global and subcortical brain measures of 6008 individuals (1228 FDRs-SZ, 852 FDRs-BD, 2246 control subjects, 1016 patients with schizophrenia, 666 patients with bipolar disorder) from 34 schizophrenia and/or bipolar disorder family cohorts with standardized methods. Analyses were repeated with a correction for intracranial volume (ICV) and for the presence of any psychopathology in the relatives and control subjects. RESULTS: FDRs-BD had significantly larger ICV (d = +0.16, q < .05 corrected), whereas FDRs-SZ showed smaller thalamic volumes than control subjects (d = -0.12, q < .05 corrected). ICV explained the enlargements in the brain measures in FDRs-BD. In FDRs-SZ, after correction for ICV, total brain, cortical gray matter, cerebral white matter, cerebellar gray and white matter, and thalamus volumes were significantly smaller; the cortex was thinner (d < -0.09, q < .05 corrected); and third ventricle was larger (d = +0.15, q < .05 corrected). The findings were not explained by psychopathology in the relatives or control subjects. CONCLUSIONS: Despite shared genetic liability, FDRs-SZ and FDRs-BD show a differential pattern of structural brain abnormalities, specifically a divergent effect in ICV. This may imply that the neurodevelopmental trajectories leading to brain anomalies in schizophrenia or bipolar disorder are distinct.

Complement Gene Expression Correlates with Superior Frontal Cortical Thickness in Humans.

Recent work suggests that genes encoding complement proteins that are active in the innate immune system may confer risk for schizophrenia by disrupting typical synaptic pruning in late adolescence. Alterations in the complement pathway may contribute to aberrant cortical thinning in schizophrenia prodromes and reduced prefrontal cortical thickness in chronic schizophrenia patients; however, this theory needs to be translated to humans. We conducted a series of analyses in a sample of adult Swedish twins enriched for schizophrenia (N=129) to assess the plausibility of a relationship between complement gene expression and cortical thickness that could go awry in the etiology of schizophrenia. First, we identified that peripheral mRNA expression levels of two complement genes (C5, SERPING1) made unique contributions to the variance in superior frontal cortical thickness among all participants. Vertex-wise maps of the association between gene expression levels and thickness across the cortex suggested that this relationship was especially strong with SERPING1 in the superior frontal region, consistent with the pattern of disruption in cortical thickness observed in schizophrenia. Additional analyses identified that these genes are expressed in the human superior frontal cortex, that heritable genetic factors influence SERPING1 gene expression levels, and that these associations are observed regardless of case status. These findings provide initial evidence linking the complement system with cortical thinning in humans, a process potentially involved in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia.

Use of Machine Learning to Determine Deviance in Neuroanatomical Maturity Associated With Future Psychosis in Youths at Clinically High Risk.

Importance: Altered neurodevelopmental trajectories are thought to reflect heterogeneity in the pathophysiologic characteristics of schizophrenia, but whether neural indicators of these trajectories are associated with future psychosis is unclear. Objective: To investigate distinct neuroanatomical markers that can differentiate aberrant neurodevelopmental trajectories among clinically high-risk (CHR) individuals. Design, Setting, and Participants: In this prospective longitudinal multicenter study, a neuroanatomical-based age prediction model was developed using a supervised machine learning technique with T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging scans of 953 healthy controls 3 to 21 years of age from the Pediatric Imaging, Neurocognition, and Genetics (PING) study and then applied to scans of 275 CHR individuals (including 39 who developed psychosis) and 109 healthy controls 12 to 21 years of age from the North American Prodrome Longitudinal Study 2 (NAPLS 2) for external validation and clinical application. Scans from NAPLS 2 were collected from January 15, 2010, to April 30, 2012. Main Outcomes and Measures: Discrepancy between neuroanatomical-based predicted age (hereafter referred to as brain age) and chronological age. Results: The PING-derived model (460 females and 493 males; age range, 3-21 years) accurately estimated the chronological ages of the 109 healthy controls in the NAPLS 2 (43 females and 66 males; age range, 12-21 years), providing evidence of independent external validation. The 275 CHR individuals in the NAPLS 2 (111 females and 164 males; age range, 12-21 years) showed a significantly greater mean (SD) gap between model-predicted age and chronological age (0.64 [2.16] years) compared with healthy controls (P = .008). This outcome was significantly moderated by chronological age, with brain age systematically overestimating the ages of CHR individuals who developed psychosis at ages 12 to 17 years but not the brain ages of those aged 18 to 21 years. Greater brain age deviation was associated with a higher risk for developing psychosis (F = 3.70; P = .01) and a pattern of stably poor functioning over time, but only among younger CHR adolescents. Previously reported evidence of accelerated reduction in cortical thickness among CHR individuals who developed psychosis was found to apply only to those who were 18 years of age or older. Conclusions and Relevance: These results are consistent with the view that neuroanatomical markers of schizophrenia may help to explain some of the heterogeneity of this disorder, particularly with respect to early vs later age of onset of psychosis, with younger and older individuals having differing intercepts and trajectories in structural brain parameters as a function of age. The results also suggest that baseline neuroanatomical measures are likely to be useful in estimating onset of psychosis, especially (or only) among CHR individuals with an earlier age of onset of prodromal symptoms.

Cerebello-thalamo-cortical hyperconnectivity as a state-independent functional neural signature for psychosis prediction and characterization.

Understanding the fundamental alterations in brain functioning that lead to psychotic disorders remains a major challenge in clinical neuroscience. In particular, it is unknown whether any state-independent biomarkers can potentially predict the onset of psychosis and distinguish patients from healthy controls, regardless of paradigm. Here, using multi-paradigm fMRI data from the North American Prodrome Longitudinal Study consortium, we show that individuals at clinical high risk for psychosis display an intrinsic "trait-like" abnormality in brain architecture characterized as increased connectivity in the cerebello-thalamo-cortical circuitry, a pattern that is significantly more pronounced among converters compared with non-converters. This alteration is significantly correlated with disorganization symptoms and predictive of time to conversion to psychosis. Moreover, using an independent clinical sample, we demonstrate that this hyperconnectivity pattern is reliably detected and specifically present in patients with schizophrenia. These findings implicate cerebello-thalamo-cortical hyperconnectivity as a robust state-independent neural signature for psychosis prediction and characterization.

Optimized biodegradable polymeric reservoir-mediated local and sustained co-delivery of dendritic cells and oncolytic adenovirus co-expressing IL-12 and GM-CSF for cancer immunotherapy.

Administration of dendritic cells (DCs) combined with oncolytic adenovirus (Ad) expressing antitumor cytokines induces a potent antitumor effect and antitumor immunity by ameliorating the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. However, this combination therapy has significant limitations due to rapid dissemination and inactivation of the therapeutics at the tumor site, necessitating multiple injections of both therapeutics. To overcome these limitations, we have utilized gelatin-based hydrogel to co-deliver oncolytic Ad co-expressing interleukin (IL)-12 and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) (oAd) and DCs for sustained release of both therapeutics. The injectable and biodegradable hydrogels were prepared by mixing the polymer solutions containing horseradish peroxidase and hydrogen peroxide. Gel matrix enabled sustained release of both oAd and DCs while preserving their biological activity over a considerable time period, leading to efficient retention of both therapeutics in tumor tissue. Further, tumors treated with oAd- and DC-loaded gel (oAd+DC/gel) showed a significantly greater expression level of IL-12, GM-CSF, and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) than either single treatment (oAd or DC) or oAd in combination with DC (oAd+DC), resulting in efficient activation of both endogenous and exogenous DCs, migration of DCs to draining lymph nodes, and tumor infiltration of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. Moreover, oAd+DC/gel resulted in a significantly higher number of tumor-specific IFN-γ-secreting immune cells compared with oAd+DC. Lastly, oAd+DC/gel significantly attenuated tumor-mediated thymic atrophy, which is associated with immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment, compared with oAd+DC. Taken together, these results demonstrate that gelatin gel-mediated co-delivery of oncolytic Ad and DCs might be a promising strategy to efficiently retain both therapeutics in tumor tissue and induce a potent antitumor immune response for an extended time period via a single administration.

The Role of microRNA Expression in Cortical Development During Conversion to Psychosis.

In a recent report of the North American Prodrome Longitudinal Study (NAPLS), clinical high-risk individuals who converted to psychosis showed a steeper rate of cortical gray matter reduction compared with non-converters and healthy controls, and the rate of cortical thinning was correlated with levels of proinflammatory cytokines at baseline. These findings suggest a critical role for microglia, the resident macrophages in the brain, in perturbations of cortical maturation processes associated with onset of psychosis. Elucidating gene expression pathways promoting microglial action prior to disease onset would inform potential preventative intervention targets. Here we used a forward stepwise regression algorithm to build a classifier of baseline microRNA expression in peripheral leukocytes associated with annualized rate of cortical thinning in a subsample of the NAPLS cohort (N=74). Our cortical thinning classifier included nine microRNAs, p=3.63 × 10-08, R2=0.358, permutation-based p=0.039, the gene targets of which were enriched for intracellular signaling pathways that are important to coordinating inflammatory responses within immune cells (p<0.05, Benjamini-Hochberg corrected). The classifier was also related to proinflammatory cytokine levels in serum (p=0.038). Furthermore, miRNAs that predicted conversion status were found to do so in a manner partially mediated by rate of cortical thinning (point estimate=0.078 (95% CIs: 0.003, 0.168), p=0.03). Many of the miRNAs identified here have been previously implicated in brain development, synaptic plasticity, immune function and/or schizophrenia, showing some convergence across studies and methodologies. Altered intracellular signaling within the immune system may interact with cortical maturation in individuals at high risk for schizophrenia promoting disease onset.