Comparative mRNA analysis of behavioral and genetic mouse models of aggression.

Mouse models of aggression have traditionally compared strains, most notably BALB/cJ and C57BL/6. However, these strains were not designed to study aggression despite differences in aggression-related traits and distinct reactivity to stress. This study evaluated expression of genes differentially regulated in a stress (behavioral) mouse model of aggression with those from a recent genetic mouse model aggression. The study used a discovery-replication design using two independent mRNA studies from mouse brain tissue. The discovery study identified strain (BALB/cJ and C57BL/6J) × stress (chronic mild stress or control) interactions. Probe sets differentially regulated in the discovery set were intersected with those uncovered in the replication study, which evaluated differences between high and low aggressive animals from three strains specifically bred to study aggression. Network analysis was conducted on overlapping genes uncovered across both studies. A significant overlap was found with the genetic mouse study sharing 1,916 probe sets with the stress model. Fifty-one probe sets were found to be strongly dysregulated across both studies mapping to 50 known genes. Network analysis revealed two plausible pathways including one centered on the UBC gene hub which encodes ubiquitin, a protein well-known for protein degradation, and another on P38 MAPK. Findings from this study support the stress model of aggression, which showed remarkable molecular overlap with a genetic model. The study uncovered a set of candidate genes including the Erg2 gene, which has previously been implicated in different psychopathologies. The gene networks uncovered points at a Redox pathway as potentially being implicated in aggressive related behaviors.

Transcriptome analysis of genes and gene networks involved in aggressive behavior in mouse and zebrafish.

Despite moderate heritability estimates, the molecular architecture of aggressive behavior remains poorly characterized. This study compared gene expression profiles from a genetic mouse model of aggression with zebrafish, an animal model traditionally used to study aggression. A meta-analytic, cross-species approach was used to identify genomic variants associated with aggressive behavior. The Rankprod algorithm was used to evaluated mRNA differences from prefrontal cortex tissues of three sets of mouse lines (N = 18) selectively bred for low and high aggressive behavior (SAL/LAL, TA/TNA, and NC900/NC100). The same approach was used to evaluate mRNA differences in zebrafish (N = 12) exposed to aggressive or non-aggressive social encounters. Results were compared to uncover genes consistently implicated in aggression across both studies. Seventy-six genes were differentially expressed (PFP < 0.05) in aggressive compared to non-aggressive mice. Seventy genes were differentially expressed in zebrafish exposed to a fight encounter compared to isolated zebrafish. Seven genes (Fos, Dusp1, Hdac4, Ier2, Bdnf, Btg2, and Nr4a1) were differentially expressed across both species 5 of which belonging to a gene-network centred on the c-Fos gene hub. Network analysis revealed an association with the MAPK signaling cascade. In human studies HDAC4 haploinsufficiency is a key genetic mechanism associated with brachydactyly mental retardation syndrome (BDMR), which is associated with aggressive behaviors. Moreover, the HDAC4 receptor is a drug target for valproic acid, which is being employed as an effective pharmacological treatment for aggressive behavior in geriatric, psychiatric, and brain-injury patients. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Pervasive and opposing effects of Unpredictable Chronic Mild Stress (UCMS) on hippocampal gene expression in BALB/cJ and C57BL/6J mouse strains.

BACKGROUND: BALB/cJ is a strain susceptible to stress and extremely susceptible to a defective hedonic impact in response to chronic stressors. The strain offers much promise as an animal model for the study of stress related disorders. We present a comparative hippocampal gene expression study on the effects of unpredictable chronic mild stress on BALB/cJ and C57BL/6J mice. Affymetrix MOE 430 was used to measure hippocampal gene expression from 16 animals of two different strains (BALB/cJ and C57BL/6J) of both sexes and subjected to either unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) or no stress. Differences were statistically evaluated through supervised and unsupervised linear modelling and using Weighted Gene Coexpression Network Analysis (WGCNA). In order to gain further understanding into mechanisms related to stress response, we cross-validated our results with a parallel study from the GENDEP project using WGCNA in a meta-analysis design. RESULTS: The effects of UCMS are visible through Principal Component Analysis which highlights the stress sensitivity of the BALB/cJ strain. A number of genes and gene networks related to stress response were uncovered including the Creb1 gene. WGCNA and pathway analysis revealed a gene network centered on Nfkb1. Results from the meta-analysis revealed a highly significant gene pathway centred on the Ubiquitin C (Ubc) gene. All pathways uncovered are associated with inflammation and immune response. CONCLUSIONS: The study investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying the response to adverse environment in an animal model using a GxE design. Stress-related differences were visible at the genomic level through PCA analysis highlighting the high sensitivity of BALB/cJ animals to environmental stressors. Several candidate genes and gene networks reported are associated with inflammation and neurogenesis and could serve to inform candidate gene selection in human studies and provide additional insight into the pathology of Major Depressive Disorder.

The Collaborative Cross, a community resource for the genetic analysis of complex traits.

The goal of the Complex Trait Consortium is to promote the development of resources that can be used to understand, treat and ultimately prevent pervasive human diseases. Existing and proposed mouse resources that are optimized to study the actions of isolated genetic loci on a fixed background are less effective for studying intact polygenic networks and interactions among genes, environments, pathogens and other factors. The Collaborative Cross will provide a common reference panel specifically designed for the integrative analysis of complex systems and will change the way we approach human health and disease.

Heritability estimates in behavior genetics: wasn't that station passed long ago?

Charney describes several mechanisms that will bias estimates of heritability in unpredictable directions. In addition, the mechanisms described by Charney explain the puzzling fact that research in human-behavior genetics routinely reports higher heritabilities than animal studies do. However, I argue that the concept of heritability has no real place in human research anyway.

Autistic-like behavioral effects of prenatal stress in juvenile Fmr1 mice: the relevance of sex differences and gene-environment interactions.

Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) is the most common heritable form of mental retardation and monogenic cause of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). FXS is due to a mutation in the X-linked FMR1 gene and is characterized by motor, cognitive and social alterations, mostly overlapping with ASD behavioral phenotypes. The severity of these symptoms and their timing may be exacerbated and/or advanced by environmental adversity interacting with the genetic mutation. We therefore tested the effects of the prenatal exposure to unpredictable chronic stress on the behavioral phenotype of juveniles of both sexes in the Fmr1 knock-out (KO) mouse model of FXS. Mice underwent behavioral tests at 7-8 weeks of age, that is, when most of the relevant behavioral alterations are absent or mild in Fmr1-KOs. Stress induced the early appearance of deficits in spontaneous alternation in KO male mice, without exacerbating the behavioral phenotype of mutant females. In males stress also altered social interaction and communication, but mostly in WT mice, while in females it induced effects on locomotion and communication in mice of both genotypes. Our data therefore highlight the sex-dependent relevance of early environmental stressors to interact with genetic factors to influence the appearance of selected FXS- and ASD-like phenotypes.

Scribble Controls Social Motivation Behavior through the Regulation of the ERK/Mnk1 Pathway.

Social behavior is a basic domain affected by several neurodevelopmental disorders, including ASD and a heterogeneous set of neuropsychiatric disorders. The SCRIB gene that codes for the polarity protein SCRIBBLE has been identified as a risk gene for spina bifida, the most common type of neural tube defect, found at high frequencies in autistic patients, as well as other congenital anomalies. The deletions and mutations of the 8q24.3 region encompassing SCRIB are also associated with multisyndromic and rare disorders. Nonetheless, the potential link between SCRIB and relevant social phenotypes has not been fully investigated. Hence, we show that Scribcrc/+ mice, carrying a mutated version of Scrib, displayed reduced social motivation behavior and social habituation, while other behavioral domains were unaltered. Social deficits were associated with the upregulation of ERK phosphorylation, together with increased c-Fos activity. Importantly, the social alterations were rescued by both direct and indirect pERK inhibition. These results support a link between polarity genes, social behaviors and hippocampal functionality and suggest a role for SCRIB in the etiopathology of neurodevelopmental disorders. Furthermore, our data demonstrate the crucial role of the MAPK/ERK signaling pathway in underlying social motivation behavior, thus supporting its relevance as a therapeutic target.

Communication and social interaction in the cannabinoid-type 1 receptor null mouse: Implications for autism spectrum disorder.

Clinical and preclinical findings have suggested a role of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) in the etiopathology of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Previous mouse studies have investigated the role of ECS in several behavioral domains; however, none of them has performed an extensive assessment of social and communication behaviors, that is, the main core features of ASD. This study employed a mouse line lacking the primary endocannabinoid receptor (CB1r) and characterized ultrasonic communication and social interaction in CB1-/- , CB1+/- , and CB1+/+ males and females. Quantitative and qualitative alterations in ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) were observed in CB1 null mice both during early development (i.e., between postnatal days 4 and 10), and at adulthood (i.e., at 3 months of age). Adult mutants also showed marked deficits in social interest in the three-chamber test and social investigation in the direct social interaction test. These behavioral alterations were mostly observed in both sexes and appeared more marked in CB1-/- than CB1+/- mutant mice. Importantly, the adult USV alterations could not be attributed to differences in anxiety or sensorimotor abilities, as assessed by the elevated plus maze and auditory startle tests. Our findings demonstrate the role of CB1r in social communication and behavior, supporting the use of the CB1 full knockout mouse in preclinical research on these ASD-relevant core domains. LAY SUMMARY: The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is important for brain development and neural function and is therefore likely to be involved in neurodevelopmental disorders such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Here we investigated changes in social behavior and communication, which are core features of ASD, in male and female mice lacking the chief receptor of this system. Our results show that loss of this receptor results in several changes in social behavior and communication both during early development and in adulthood, thus supporting the role of the ECS in these ASD-core behavioral domains.

Narcolepsy in Parkinson's disease with insulin resistance.

Background: Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by its progression of motor-related symptoms such as tremors, rigidity, slowness of movement, and difficulty with walking and balance. Comorbid conditions in PD individuals include insulin resistance (IR) and narcolepsy-like sleep patterns. The intersecting sleep symptoms of both conditions include excessive daytime sleepiness, hallucinations, insomnia, and falling into REM sleep more quickly than an average person. Understanding of the biological basis and relationship of these comorbid disorders with PD may help with early detection and intervention strategies to improve quality of life. Methods: In this study, an integrative genomics and systems biology approach was used to analyze gene expression patterns associated with PD, IR, and narcolepsy in order to identify genes and pathways that may shed light on how these disorders are interrelated. A correlation analysis with known genes associated with these disorders (LRRK2, HLA-DQB1, and HCRT) was used to query microarray data corresponding to brain regions known to be involved in PD and narcolepsy. This includes the hypothalamus, dorsal thalamus, pons, and subcoeruleus nucleus. Risk factor genes for PD, IR, and narcolepsy were also incorporated into the analysis. Results: The PD and narcolepsy signaling networks are connected through insulin and immune system pathways. Important genes and pathways that link PD, narcolepsy, and IR are CACNA1C, CAMK1D, BHLHE41, HMGB1, and AGE-RAGE. Conclusions: We have identified the genetic signatures that link PD with its comorbid disorders, narcolepsy and insulin resistance, from the convergence and intersection of dopaminergic, insulin, and immune system related signaling pathways. These findings may aid in the design of early intervention strategies and treatment regimes for non-motor symptoms in PD patients as well as individuals with diabetes and narcolepsy.

Common genetic signatures of Alzheimer's disease in Down Syndrome.

Background: People with Down Syndrome (DS) are born with an extra copy of Chromosome (Chr) 21 and many of these individuals develop Alzheimer's Disease (AD) when they age. This is due at least in part to the extra copy of the APP gene located on Chr 21. By 40 years, most people with DS have amyloid plaques which disrupt brain cell function and increase their risk for AD. About half of the people with DS develop AD and the associated dementia around 50 to 60 years of age, which is about the age at which the hereditary form of AD, early onset AD, manifests. In the absence of Chr 21 trisomy, duplication of APP alone is a cause of early onset Alzheimer's disease, making it likely that having three copies of APP is important in the development of AD and in DS. Methods: We investigate the relationship between AD and DS through integrative analysis of genesets derived from a MeSH query of AD and DS associated beta amyloid peptides, Chr 21, GWAS identified AD risk factor genes, and differentially expressed genes in individuals with DS. Results:  Unique and shared aspects of each geneset were evaluated based on  functional enrichment analysis, transcription factor profile and network interactions. Genes that may be important to both disorders in the context of direct association with APP processing, Tau post translational modification  and network connectivity are ACSM1, APBA2, APLP1, BACE2, BCL2L, COL18A1, DYRK1A, IK, KLK6, METTL2B, MTOR, NFE2L2, NFKB1, PRSS1, QTRT1, RCAN1, RUNX1, SAP18 SOD1, SYNJ1, S100B. Conclusions: Our findings confirm that oxidative stress, apoptosis, inflammation and immune system processes likely contribute to the pathogenesis of AD and DS which is consistent with other published reports.

Strain-dependent changes in acoustic startle response and its plasticity across adolescence in mice.

Acoustic startle response and its plasticity, e.g., habituation and prepulse inhibition (PPI), have been extensively investigated, being altered in several neuropsychiatric disorders. Yet, little is known about the expression of startle-related behaviors during adolescence, a critical phase in the development of a variety of major neuropsychiatric pathologies. The present study investigated for the first time startle behaviors across adolescence in male mice of the inbred strains C57BL/6J and DBA/2J. Pre-pubertal (4 weeks of age) mice displayed reduced startle reactivity and altered PPI compared to adult animals (8 weeks of age), but these effects were observed only in the C57BL/6J strain. Strain differences were also clearly detected for startle response, habituation, and PPI. All effects were modulated by the intensity of the pulse stimulus and were not confounded by differences in anxiety levels. Our data demonstrate that genetic factors and the early adolescent phase are critically important considerations in the design of mouse models of neuropsychiatric disturbances.

Introducing high school students to the Gene Ontology classification system.

We present an activity that introduces high school students to the Gene Ontology classification system which is widely used in genomics and systems biology studies to characterize large sets of genes based on functional and structural information. This is a valuable and standardized method used to identify genes that act in similar processes and pathways and also to gain insight into the overall architecture and distribution of genes and gene families associated with a particular tissue or disease. Through this exercise, students will learn how the classification system works by analyzing a list of genes using DAVID the Database for Annotation, Visualization and Integrated Discovery that incorporates the Gene Ontology system into its suite of analysis tools. This method of profiling genes is used by our high school student interns to categorize gene expression data related to behavioral neuroscience. Students will get a feel for working with genes and gene sets, gain vocabulary, obtain an understanding of how a database is structured and gain an awareness of the vast amount of information that is known about genes as well as the online analysis tools that are available.

Sex differences in gene expression patterns associated with the APOE4 allele.

Background: The APOE gene encodes apolipoprotein ε (ApoE), a protein that associates with lipids to form lipoproteins that package and traffic cholesterol and lipids through the bloodstream. There are at least three different alleles of the APOE gene: APOE2, APOE3, and APOE4. The APOE4 allele increases an individual's risk for developing late-onset Alzheimer disease (AD) in a dose-dependent manner. Sex differences have been reported for AD susceptibility, age of onset, and symptom progression, with females being more affected than males. Methods: In this study, we use a systems biology approach to examine gene expression patterns in the brains of aged female and male individuals who are positive for the APOE4 allele in order to identify possible sex-related differences that may be relevant to AD. Results: Based on correlation analysis, we identified a large number of genes with an expression pattern similar to that of APOE in APOE4-positive individuals. The number of these genes was much higher in APOE4-positive females than in APOE4-positive males, who in turn had more of such genes than APOE4-negative control groups. Our findings also indicate a significant sex* genotype interaction for the CNTNAP2 gene, a member of the neurexin family and a significant interaction for brain area*sex* genotype for PSEN2, a risk factor gene for AD.  Conclusions: Profiling of these genes using Gene Ontology (GO) term classification, pathway enrichment, and differential expression analysis supports the idea of a transcriptional role of APOE with respect to sex differences and AD.

Chronic exposure to glufosinate-ammonium induces spatial memory impairments, hippocampal MRI modifications and glutamine synthetase activation in mice.

Glufosinate-ammonium (GLA), the active compound of a worldwide-used herbicide, acts by inhibiting the plant glutamine synthetase (GS) leading to a lethal accumulation of ammonia. GS plays a pivotal role in the mammalian brain where it allows neurotransmitter glutamate recycling within astroglia. Clinical studies report that an acute GLA ingestion induces convulsions and memory impairment in humans. Toxicological studies performed at doses used for herbicidal activity showed that GLA is probably harmless at short or medium range periods. However, effects of low doses of GLA on chronically exposed subjects are not known. In our study, C57BL/6J mice were treated during 10 weeks three times a week with 2.5, 5 and 10mg/kg of GLA. Effects of this chronic treatment were assessed at behavioral, structural and metabolic levels by using tests of spatial memory, locomotor activity and anxiety, hippocampal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) texture analysis, and hippocampal GS activity assay, respectively. Chronic GLA treatments have effects neither on anxiety nor on locomotor activity of mice but at 5 and 10mg/kg induce (1) mild memory impairments, (2) a modification of hippocampal texture and (3) a significant increase in hippocampal GS activity. It is suggested that these modifications may be causally linked one to another. Since glutamate is the main neurotransmitter in hippocampus where it plays a crucial role in spatial memory, hippocampal MRI texture and spatial memory alterations might be the consequences of hippocampal glutamate homeostasis modification revealed by increased GS activity in hippocampus. The present study provides the first data that show cerebral alterations after chronic exposure to GLA.

Reproducibility and replicability of rodent phenotyping in preclinical studies.

The scientific community is increasingly concerned with the proportion of published "discoveries" that are not replicated in subsequent studies. The field of rodent behavioral phenotyping was one of the first to raise this concern, and to relate it to other methodological issues: the complex interaction between genotype and environment; the definitions of behavioral constructs; and the use of laboratory mice and rats as model species for investigating human health and disease mechanisms. In January 2015, researchers from various disciplines gathered at Tel Aviv University to discuss these issues. The general consensus was that the issue is prevalent and of concern, and should be addressed at the statistical, methodological and policy levels, but is not so severe as to call into question the validity and the usefulness of model organisms as a whole. Well-organized community efforts, coupled with improved data and metadata sharing, have a key role in identifying specific problems and promoting effective solutions. Replicability is closely related to validity, may affect generalizability and translation of findings, and has important ethical implications.

Antidepressant-like effects of the histone deacetylase inhibitor, sodium butyrate, in the mouse.

BACKGROUND: Chromatin remodeling, including changes in histone acetylation, might play a role in the pathophysiology and treatment of depression. We investigated whether the histone deacetylase inhibitor sodium butyrate (SB) administered as single drug or in combination with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) fluoxetine exerts antidepressant-like effects in mice. METHODS: Mice (C57BL/6J) received injections of SB, fluoxetine, or a combination of both drugs either acutely or chronically for a period of 28 days and were subjected to a battery of tests to measure anxiety and behavioral despair. Histone acetylation and expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) were monitored in hippocampus and frontal cortex. RESULTS: Co-treatment with SB and fluoxetine resulted in a significant 20%-40% decrease in immobility scores in the tail suspension test (TST), a measure for behavioral despair, both acutely and chronically. In contrast, decreased immobility after single drug regimens was limited either to the acute (fluoxetine) or chronic (SB) paradigm. Systemic injection of SB induced short-lasting histone hyperacetylation in hippocampus and frontal cortex. Among the four treatment paradigms that resulted in improved immobility scores in the TST, three were associated with a transient, at least 50% increase in BDNF transcript in frontal cortex, whereas changes in hippocampus were less consistent. CONCLUSIONS: The histone deacetylase inhibitor SB exerts antidepressant-like effects in the mouse. The therapeutic benefits and molecular actions of histone modifying drugs, including co-treatment with SSRIs and other newer generation antidepressant medications, warrant further exploration in experimental models.

Genetic Dissection of Variation in Hippocampal Intra- and Infrapyramidal Mossy Fibers in the Mouse.

This chapter describes the genetic analysis of a morphometric neuroanatomic trait. We used the extended BXD family of recombinant inbred mouse strains with the intent to analyze the genetic bases of heritable differences in hippocampal neurocircuitry and to identify Quantitative Trait Loci that underlie these variations. A detailed description of a GeneNetwork analysis is provided using data for the intra- and infrapyramidal mossy fiber (IIPMF) terminal fields which are strongly correlated with spatial navigation/radial maze learning.

Engaging high school students in neuroscience research -through an e-internship program.

In this article, we describe the design and implementation of an e-internship program that BioScience Project offers high school students over the summer. Project topics are in the areas of behavioral neuroscience and brain disorders. All research, teaching, and communication is done online using open access databases and webtools, a learning management system, and Google apps. Students conduct all aspects of a research project from formulating a question to collecting and analyzing the data, to presenting their results in the form of a scientific poster. Results from a pilot study involving fifteen students indicate that students are capable of successfully completing such a project, and benefit both intellectually and professionally from participating in the e-internship program.