Effects of individual differences, society, and culture on youth-rated problems and strengths in 38 societies.

BACKGROUND: Clinicians increasingly serve youths from societal/cultural backgrounds different from their own. This raises questions about how to interpret what such youths report. Rescorla et al. (2019, European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 1107) found that much more variance in 72,493 parents' ratings of their offspring's mental health problems was accounted for by individual differences than by societal or cultural differences. Although parents' reports are essential for clinical assessment of their offspring, they reflect parents' perceptions of the offspring. Consequently, clinical assessment also requires self-reports from the offspring themselves. To test effects of individual differences, society, and culture on youths' self-ratings of their problems and strengths, we analyzed Youth Self-Report (YSR) scores for 39,849 11-17 year olds in 38 societies. METHODS: Indigenous researchers obtained YSR self-ratings from population samples of youths in 38 societies representing 10 culture cluster identified in the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavioral Effectiveness study. Hierarchical linear modeling of scores on 17 problem scales and one strengths scale estimated the percent of variance accounted for by individual differences (including measurement error), society, and culture cluster. ANOVAs tested age and gender effects. RESULTS: Averaged across the 17 problem scales, individual differences accounted for 92.5% of variance, societal differences 6.0%, and cultural differences 1.5%. For strengths, individual differences accounted for 83.4% of variance, societal differences 10.1%, and cultural differences 6.5%. Age and gender had very small effects. CONCLUSIONS: Like parents' ratings, youths' self-ratings of problems were affected much more by individual differences than societal/cultural differences. Most variance in self-rated strengths also reflected individual differences, but societal/cultural effects were larger than for problems, suggesting greater influence of social desirability. The clinical significance of individual differences in youths' self-reports should thus not be minimized by societal/cultural differences, which-while important-can be taken into account with appropriate norms, as can gender and age differences.

Regional research priorities in brain and nervous system disorders.

The characteristics of neurological, psychiatric, developmental and substance-use disorders in low- and middle-income countries are unique and the burden that they have will be different from country to country. Many of the differences are explained by the wide variation in population demographics and size, poverty, conflict, culture, land area and quality, and genetics. Neurological, psychiatric, developmental and substance-use disorders that result from, or are worsened by, a lack of adequate nutrition and infectious disease still afflict much of sub-Saharan Africa, although disorders related to increasing longevity, such as stroke, are on the rise. In the Middle East and North Africa, major depressive disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder are a primary concern because of the conflict-ridden environment. Consanguinity is a serious concern that leads to the high prevalence of recessive disorders in the Middle East and North Africa and possibly other regions. The burden of these disorders in Latin American and Asian countries largely surrounds stroke and vascular disease, dementia and lifestyle factors that are influenced by genetics. Although much knowledge has been gained over the past 10 years, the epidemiology of the conditions in low- and middle-income countries still needs more research. Prevention and treatments could be better informed with more longitudinal studies of risk factors. Challenges and opportunities for ameliorating nervous-system disorders can benefit from both local and regional research collaborations. The lack of resources and infrastructure for health-care and related research, both in terms of personnel and equipment, along with the stigma associated with the physical or behavioural manifestations of some disorders have hampered progress in understanding the disease burden and improving brain health. Individual countries, and regions within countries, have specific needs in terms of research priorities.

Urbanization, and child mental health and life functioning in Vietnam: implications for global health disparities.

PURPOSE: Urbanization is linked to increased health risks, including mental health. However, the large majority of this research has been conducted in high-income countries, and little is known about effects in low-and-middle-income countries (LMIC) where urbanization is occurring most frequently and most rapidly. Within global mental health, children and adolescents are a critical but understudied population. The present study assessed relations between urbanization factors, and child mental health in Vietnam, a Southeast Asian LMIC. METHODS: Most studies investigating urbanization and mental health have used geographically based dichotomous urban vs. rural variables. Because of significant limitations with this approach, the present study assessed parent-reported urbanization factors (e.g., pollution, crime). In Sub-study #1 (cross-sectional), 1314 parents from 10 Vietnam provinces completed the Urbanization Factors Questionnaire, Child Behavior Checklist (mental health), and Brief Impairment Scale (life functioning). In Sub-study #2 (longitudinal), 256 parents from one highly urban and one highly rural province completed the same measures, at three timepoints across 12 months. RESULTS: Cross-sectional canonical correlations identified relatively small (e.g., R2 = 0.08) but significant relations between urbanization factors, and child functioning. Parallel analyses using a geographically defined urban vs. rural variable did not produce significant results. The large majority of longitudinal relations between the different urbanization factors and child functioning were non-significant. CONCLUSIONS: This study, among the first to assess urbanization as a multi-dimensional continuous construct in relation to child psychopathology, highlights the value of the use of an urbanization factors approach. A new "urbanization factors differentials" theory is proposed to suggest how effects of urbanization factors might result in global health disparities.

Vietnam as a case example of school-based mental health services in low and middle income countries: Efficacy and effects of risk status.

The purposes of this study were to (a) assess the efficacy of a universal classroom-based mental health and social skills program for primary school students in Vietnam, and (b) given the universal nature of the intervention, assess outcomes as a function of risk status (high vs. low). RECAP-VN is a semi-structured program that provides students with classroom social skills training, and teachers with in-classroom consultation on program implementation and classroom-wide behavior management. Project data were collected at three time-points across the academic year from 443 2nd grade students in regards to their social skills and mental health functioning, in the Vietnamese cities of Hanoi and Danang. Mental health functioning (emotional and behavioral mental health problems) was the ultimate outcome target (at Time 3), with social skills intermediate (at Time 2) outcomes targeted to improve mental health functioning. Significant treatment effects were found on both social skills and mental health functioning. However, although program effects on mental health functioning were significant for both low and high risk status groups, program effects on social skills were only significant for low risk status students, suggesting that different mechanisms may underlie program effects for high and low risk status students. Overall the results of this study, one of the first to assess directly the effects of a school-based program on mental health functioning in a low or middle income country, provide some support for the value of using school-based programs to address the substantial child mental health treatment gap found in low- and middle-income countries.

Functional impairment and mental health functioning among Vietnamese children.

PURPOSE: Functional impairment is a key indicator of need for mental health services among children and adolescents, often a stronger predictor of service usage than mental health symptoms themselves. Functional impairment may be of particular importance in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) because of its potential to focus policy on treatment of child mental health problems which is generally given low priority in LMIC. However, few studies have assessed functional impairment in LMIC. The present study assessed rates of functional impairment among children in Vietnam, as a case example of an LMIC, as well as effects of other risk/protective factors of particular relevance to LMIC (e.g., whether the family lived in an urban or rural area; family structure variables such as grandparents living with the family). METHODS: 1314 parents of children 6-16 years old from 10 Vietnamese provinces were interviewed. RESULTS: The overall rate of functional impairment among Vietnamese children was 20 %, similar to rates in high-income countries such as Germany and the United States, suggesting that LMIC status may not be associated with dramatic increases in functional impairment in children. Functional impairment was significantly greater among mental health cases than non-cases, with increases of over 550 % associated with mental health caseness. A number of other risk factors (e.g., marital status) had smaller but significant effects. CONCLUSIONS: Mental health problems are a major but not the sole contributor to functional impairment among Vietnamese children. The pragmatic significance of this research lies in its potential to affect public awareness and policy related to child mental health in LMIC.

Mixed-methods needs assessment for development of school-based mental health implementation science capacity in low- and middle-income countries: Vietnam as a case example.

Worldwide, the majority of youth reside in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). School-based mental health (SBMH) services are particularly important in LMIC, in part because of LMIC's limited mental health infrastructure. Among the challenges to developing SBMH in LMIC are limited implementation science (IS) capacity, critical for identifying barriers to evidence-based intervention (EBI) use and dissemination, etc., specific to the local country context. A key step in IS capacity development is conducting a needs assessment, to identify barriers (and their solutions) to IS development itself within the local context. The present study conducted an IS needs assessment focused on SBMH in the Southeast Asian LMIC of Vietnam. Seventy-five Vietnamese mental health professionals in SBMH-related fields participated in a mixed-methods study. Vietnamese SBMH researchers and practitioners most likely to have experience and/or interest in IS were selected for study recruitment. Professionals' formal understanding of and experience with IS as a scientific field was highly limited. However, after reading a brief but detailed description of IS, participants' interest in IS training was high, and their mean rating of its potential utility for Vietnam to develop SBMH was 4.7 on a 1-5 scale. Participants also reported on barriers and potential solutions for EBI use in SBMH in Vietnam. Contrary to expectations, the most frequent and severe barriers were not financial but related to limited stakeholder engagement. Overall, these and other study results provide some suggestions how IS capacity to support SBMH may be most efficiently developed in settings such as Vietnam. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Relations between risk perception, perceptions of peers' driving, and risky driving among Cambodian adolescents.

Introduction: Traffic accidents are a leading cause of death globally, with substantial economic impact particularly in low-and-middle-income countries (LMIC). Adolescents are at particular risk, partly due to their tendency to engage in risky driving. However, most research designed to identify potential causes of risky adolescent driving has been conducted in Western, high-income countries, which often have substantial cultural differences from LMIC that potentially influence risky adolescent driving. Methods: The present study, one of the first focused on this topic in Southeast Asia, cross-sectionally assessed 425 adolescent motorbike drivers in the Southeast Asian LMIC Cambodia. Adolescents' (a) beliefs about peers' driving (social norms) and (b) driving risk perception were assessed as predictors of four risky driving behaviors: aggressive driving; distracted driving; intoxicated driving; violating driving laws. Results: Canonical correlation analysis identified a general relation between (a) beliefs about peers' driving, and (b) all four risky driving behaviors, with R2 = 0.35 indicating over one-third of the variance in risky driving was explained by perceptions of peers' driving. Risk perception was not involved in the significant canonical relation, however. Gender moderated two of the underlying relations, with females showing larger relations between perceptions of friends' driving, and distracted driving and violating driving laws. Discussion: These findings provide useful directions for future research (e.g., assessing the accuracy of Cambodian adolescents' perceptions of peers' driving) useful for helping stakeholders tailor road safety programs (e.g., providing adolescent drivers with accurate information regarding their peers' actual driving behaviors) for adolescent motorcyclists in Cambodia and similar countries.

Sooner is Better: Longitudinal Relations Between Delay Discounting, and Depression and Anxiety Symptoms among Vietnamese Adolescents.

Delay discounting refers to the decline in the present value of an outcome as a function of the delay to its receipt. Research on delay discounting initially focused on substance abuse, generally finding that greater delay discounting is associated with increased risk for and severity of substance abuse. More recently, delay discounting has been linked theoretically and empirically to affective psychopathology, potentially suggesting novel intervention targets for mental health problems such as depression and anxiety. Longitudinal research consequently is critical to determine direction of causality and rule out possible third variable explanations. Only a small number of longitudinal studies have been conducted in this area, however. Furthermore, socio-economic and socio-cultural factors may influence delay discounting and its effects, but thus far the literature is relatively limited in this regard. The present study focused on adolescence, a key time-period for development of delay discounting and emotional problems. Longitudinal relations between delay discounting, and depression and anxiety symptoms were assessed among 414 adolescents in Vietnam, a lower-middle-income Southeast Asian nation with significant cultural divergence from Western countries. In contrast to most cross-sectional studies that have found positive or non-significant correlations, in the present study delay discounting at Time 1 had a negative beta with anxiety and depression symptoms at Time 1, with preference for immediate but smaller rewards (higher discounting) at Time 1 associated with lower anxiety and depression symptoms at Time 2. These results suggest that under certain circumstances, steeper delay discounting may be adaptive and supportive of emotional mental health.

The 'big four' health risk behaviors among Vietnamese adolescents: co-occurrence and socio-cultural risk factors.

Background: Health Risk Behaviors (HRBs) represent significant health threats for adolescents. However, there has been relatively little research on multiple HRBs in low-and-middle-income countries (LMIC), where the majority of the world's youth reside. This study's objective was to investigate common HRB, their co-occurrence, and socio-demographic risk and protective factors among Vietnamese adolescents. Methods: A cross-sectional self-report survey examined four major HRBs (tobacco use, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, unhealthy diet) among 431 adolescents aged 15-17 years in five Vietnam provinces. Key HRB risk and protective factors assessed included perceived social norms, parental monitoring of adolescents' behavior, and health behavior literacy. Results: Forty-one percent of participants reported no HRB, 39% reported one, and 20% reported two or more HRBs. The four HRBs appeared to be independent, with an exploratory factor analysis indicating no common factors. The most prevalent HRB was unhealthy diet (45%), the least prevalent smoking (1%). The most frequent co-occurring HRBs were unhealthy diet and physical inactivity. Adolescents' perceptions of norms regarding HRBs and related healthy behaviors were the most consistent risk factor for the HRB. Diet was the HRB most influenced by the social variables perceived norms, monitoring, and health literacy. Conclusions: Results highlight the importance of future research identifying the temporal order of co-occurrence of multiple HRB, how differing conceptualizations of socio-cultural roles impact on HRB, and health-related effects of HRB co-occurrence. Such information will be useful for maximizing the efficiency and effectiveness of prevention and intervention programs in LMIC.

Prevalence of adverse childhood experiences among Vietnamese high school students.

BACKGROUND: Adverse childhood experiences (ACE) are linked to a range of negative health outcomes. However, the majority of research has been conducted in high-income-countries and little is known about ACE prevalence in low-and-middle-income-countries (LMIC), where the majority of the world's youth reside. OBJECTIVE: Assess ACE prevalence and demographic correlates in two provinces of the Southeast Asian LMIC Vietnam. METHODS: Prevalence of ACE were assessed among 644 Vietnamese high-school students, using the WHO Adverse Childhood Experiences-International Questionnaire. RESULTS: About 74% of participants reported experiencing at least one ACE, with 27% reporting experiencing three or more ACE. Prevalence of sexual abuse was above 10% for both males and females. Sex differences were non-significant, suggesting child protective services should give consideration to both males and females. Factor analysis identified two patterns of ACE: Violence and Aggression in Family and Community, and Family Member Dysfunction. Three ACE (sexual abuse, emotional neglect, physical neglect) did not load on either factor. Thus, at least in our sample, sexual abuse was independent of other ACE, which indicates that it can occur in any context, among children in otherwise well-functioning families, an important consideration for child protective services. The lack of significant sex differences in sexual abuse means that Vietnamese boys need equal consideration for protection and support as girls. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate that ACE are a prevalent public health problem in Vietnam. Future research evaluating potential ACE risk factors such as authoritarian parenting may be useful to identify possible targets for prevention programs in Vietnam.

Mental Health of University Students in Southeastern Asia: A Systematic Review.

Mental health in young people is a public health challenge worldwide, with around one-fifth of university students suffering from a 12-month mental disorder. In low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) of Southeastern Asia, resources for mental health are limited and counseling services are not regularly established at universities. This review aims to determine the prevalence of mental health problems among university students in six ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) countries (Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam) and to identify the determinants of mental health. A systematic database search (PubMed, CINAHL, PsycINFO, PubPsych, and Scopus) for peer-reviewed, English language articles, published 2010-2020, reporting prevalence data based on standardized screening instruments resulted in 335 articles; 108 were eligible for full-text analysis, of which 34 could be included in the review. Median point prevalence was 29.4% for depression, 42.4% for anxiety, 16.4% for stress, and 13.9% for disordered eating. Current suicidality was present in 7% to 8% of students. There was a high rate of psychiatric comorbidity. Despite the high prevalence of mental health problems, the willingness to seek professional help was comparatively low. Implications for mental health promotion and prevention in university settings are discussed.

Child mental health literacy among Vietnamese and Cambodian mothers.

Background: Parents' perceptions of their children's mental health - including recognition of specific mental health problems as such, and their beliefs about the causes and treatments for the problems - have an important impact on child mental health. Aims: This study investigated child mental health literacy among Cambodian and Vietnamese mothers. Method: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 357 mothers in Hanoi, Vietnam, and Pnom Penh and Kampong Speu, Cambodia. The Child Mental Health Literacy Questionnaire was used to assess mothers' mental health literacy, in particular their ability to correctly identify different mental health disorders, and their understanding of causes of the mental health problems, and about the utility of different treatments. Results: The overall level of mental health literacy among mothers in these two countries was low, with the proportions of mothers able to correctly identify different mental health problems ranging from 0.17 (Oppositional Defiant Disorder) to 0.35 (Trauma-related). Biological causes and adverse experiences were the most frequently selected causes of generic mental health problems. Medication, parent training and family counseling were the three most positively rated forms of treatment for mental health problems in general. Conclusion: Although Vietnam and Cambodia are geographic neighbors, varying results across these countries appear to reflect their different historical backgrounds. For instance, the largest difference between the two countries was for trauma-related problems, which may be related to the Cambodian history of genocide. Findings such as this demonstrate the need for contextually developed and focused public health intervention for mothers of children to improve their mental health literacy.

Mental health literacy at the public health level in low and middle income countries: An exploratory mixed methods study in Vietnam.

PURPOSE: Mental health literacy (MHL) is key for mental health development, particularly in low-and-middle-income countries (LMIC) where mental health resources are limited. MHL development can be thought of as occurring at two levels: the individual person level (via direct contact, with specifically-targeted individuals), and the public health level (via indirect contact through public media, targeting the general public). Each approach has advantages and disadvantages. METHODS: The present mixed methods study assessed the status of and best approaches for development of mental health literacy in the Southeast Asian LMIC Vietnam. Because there has been relatively little discussion of MHL development at the public health level, this assessment focused on the public health level, although not exclusively. Because mental health professionals generally have the most in-depth understanding of their mental health system, study participants were 82 Vietnamese mental health professionals who completed a quantitative survey, with 48 participating in focus groups. RESULTS: Most of the professionals viewed MHL in Vietnam as low or very low, and that it was difficult or very difficult for the general public to find effective mental health services. Main barriers underlying these problems and more generally for developing MHL in Vietnam identified in the focus groups were: (a) misinformation in the media regarding mental health and mental illness; (b) lack of licensure for non-medical mental health professionals (e.g., psychologists; social workers); (c) lack of interest in mental health from upper-level leadership. CONCLUSIONS: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study assessing professionals' perceptions regarding mental health literacy at both the public health and individual-person levels. Although sampling was restricted to Vietnamese professionals, results may provide initial preliminary guidance for other LMIC considering mental health literacy development at multiple levels.

Experimental evaluation of a school-based mental health literacy program in two Southeast Asian nations.

Background: Low mental health literacy (MHL) is a particular challenge in many low and middle-income countries (LMIC). School-based MHL programs hold promise to increase MHL but lack rigorous research assessing their effectiveness in LMIC. The present study evaluated a school-based MHL program, the "Mental Health & High School Curriculum Guide" ("The Guide"), implemented separately in two different contexts in Southeast Asia (Vietnam and Cambodia) following adaptations made by the research team. Methods: Participants were 80 teachers and 2,539 students from 20 schools in Vietnam (Study 1), and 67 teachers and 275 students in one school in Cambodia (Study 2). In Vietnam, teachers/classrooms were randomized to either The Guide MHL program or a treatment-as-usual control condition, with teachers in the intervention condition receiving a 3-day training in The Guide and implementing the 6-module curriculum in their classrooms. In Cambodia, school staff were randomized to either receive The Guide training or to the control condition; four teachers who received the training implemented the curriculum in select classrooms. In both studies, teachers' and students' mental health knowledge and attitudes were assessed at baseline and following completion of the classroom curriculum. Results: In Vietnam, 6 of 7 program effects for teachers were significant with some large effects (e.g., teacher Recognition of Mental Health Disorders, R2=.36); effects for both of the student outcomes were significant, but small. Results were similar in Cambodia, with 6 of 9 program effects significant favoring the treatment group; effect sizes in Cambodia were smaller than in Vietnam for teachers/staff but larger for students. Conclusion: Findings suggest that with limited adaptation, a teacher-delivered MHL intervention can produce measurable increases in MHL among teachers and students in two Southeast Asian countries. These results support the value of school-based MHL training provided via an inexpensive and teacher-friendly program, embedding MHL into classrooms. Some small effect sizes suggest the importance of additional development and research targeting these particular components.

Mental health literacy and intervention program adaptation in the internationalization of school psychology for Vietnam.

This paper discusses how school psychology technology developed in Western countries can be adapted for global contexts and "internationalized." The article reports results of two studies, providing examples of: (a) our school psychology internationalization experiences in Vietnam, as lessons hopefully useful for other professionals interested in international development; and (b) how Western researchers can learn through internalization experiences. Because mental health literacy is foundational for mental health development, Study 1 focused on assessment of mental health literacy among 353 Vietnamese teachers, with findings suggesting overall low mental health literacy among these participants. Study 2 focused on our Vietnam ACES ProS high-school problem-solving therapy program. We discuss the Mental Health Capacity Development Model guiding development of ACES ProS and report positive results of an evaluation of ACES ProS involving 100 Vietnamese high-school students. Program cultural adaptation (e.g., deciding whether teacher classroom praise should be excluded from classroom behavior management due to Vietnamese students' tendency to react to praise with increased competitive behavior) is reviewed as an example of challenges faced in school psychology internationalization. This program of research shows that school psychology internationalization can be successful but requires careful attention and close collaboration.

Incremental validity of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) in Vietnam.

OBJECTIVE: Valid but efficient psychiatric assessment is essential for mental health development in Asian low and middle-income countries. This study's objective was to assess the validity of Vietnamese versions of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) in Vietnam. METHODS: Measures were completed by a community sample of 1314 parents of children 6-16 years old from 10 Vietnamese provinces, and by parents of 208 children recruited from 3 psychiatric facilities in Hanoi. RESULTS: Internal consistency was in the fair to excellent range for all CBCL scales (.76-.96) and for the SDQ Total Problems scale (.81); SDQ subscale internal consistency was in the poor to fair range (.31-.73). All CBCL and SDQ scales and most individual items significantly discriminated between referred and non-referred children, with referred children scoring in the more pathological direction; the CBCL had significantly larger referral effect sizes than the SDQ for all four pairs of comparable scales. At the item level, the largest referral status effect for the CBCL were #73 (Sexual Problems), #84 (Strange Behavior), and #91 (Talks about suicide), and for the SDQ they were #10 (Constantly fidgeting), #15 (Easily Distracted) and # 25 (Good Attention Span-reverse scored). Five CBCL (#2 Drinks alcohol; #99 Uses tobacco, #32 Has to be perfect; #53 Overeats; #56A Aches and pains) and one SDQ items (#23 Gets along better with adults than children) did not discriminate referral status, suggesting the influence of cultural values on clinical referrability (e.g., that Vietnamese parents may not see use of tobacco as an issue of concern, or related to health). CONCLUSIONS: There is good support for the reliability and validity of the Vietnamese version of the CBCL, and for the SDQ Total Problems scale. Overall, the CBCL appears to be the stronger measure psychometrically, particularly if in-depth assessment is needed.

Substance Abuse, Relapse, and Treatment Program Evaluation in Malaysia: Perspective of Rehab Patients and Staff Using the Mixed Method Approach.

This study examined reasons for substance abuse and evaluated the effectiveness of substance treatment programs in Malaysia through interviews with rehab patients and staff. Substance rehab patients (aged 18-69 years; n = 30) and staff (ages 30-72 years; n = 10) participated in semi-structured interviews covering a range of topics, including family and peer relationships, substance use and treatment history, factors for substance use and relapse, motivation for entering treatment, work experience, job satisfaction, treatment evaluation, and patient satisfaction. Most patients did not demonstrate the substance progression trend and had normal family relationships. Most patients reported having peers from normal family backgrounds as well. Various environmental and personal factors was cited as contributing to substance abuse and relapse. There was no significant difference between patient and staff program evaluation scores although the mean score for patients was lower. A holistic treatment approach with a combination of cognitive-behavioral, medical, social, and spiritual components was favored by patients. Suggestions for improving existing programs include better tailoring treatment to individual needs, and providing more post-treatment group support.

Drug abuse, relapse, and prevention education in malaysia: perspective of university students through a mixed methods approach.

In recent years, there have been increasing accounts of illegal substance abuse among university students and professional groups in Malaysia. This study looks at university students' perceptions about this phenomenon. Students from Malaysian universities were asked for their impressions about drug availability and abuse, as well as factors contributing to drug abuse and relapse. The questionnaire also inquired into their knowledge and views regarding government versus private rehabilitation centers, as well as their exposure to, and views about, school-based drug-prevention education. Participants were 460 university students from five Malaysian states: Penang, Selangor, Kuala Lumpur, Sabah, and Sarawak. Results showed gender differences in perceptions of relapse prevention strategies, as well as factors leading to drug abuse and relapse. Students also believed that drug education would be more effective if initiated between the ages of 11 and 12 years, which is slightly older than the common age of first exposure, and provided suggestions for improving existing programs. Implications of student perceptions for the improvement of current interventions and educational programs are discussed.

Adaptation of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (WISC-IV) for Vietnam.

Intelligence testing is used for many purposes including identification of children for proper educational placement (e.g., children with learning disabilities, or intellectually gifted students), and to guide education by identifying cognitive strengths and weaknesses so that teachers can adapt their instructional style to students' specific learning styles. Most of the research involving intelligence tests has been conducted in highly developed Western countries, yet the need for intelligence testing is as or even more important in developing countries. The present study, conducted through the Vietnam National University Clinical Psychology CRISP Center, focused on the cultural adaptation of the WISC-IV intelligence test for Vietnam. We report on (a) the adaptation process including the translation, cultural analysis and modifications involved in adaptation, (b) present results of two pilot studies, and (c) describe collection of the standardization sample and results of analyses with the standardization sample, with the goal of sharing our experience with other researchers who may be involved in or interested in adapting or developing IQ tests for non-Western, non-English speaking cultures.