Loss of the DNA Damage Repair Kinase ATM Impairs Inflammasome-Dependent Anti-Bacterial Innate Immunity.

The ATM kinase is a central component of the DNA damage repair machinery and redox balance. ATM dysfunction results in the multisystem disease ataxia-telangiectasia (AT). A major cause of mortality in AT is respiratory bacterial infections. Whether ATM deficiency causes innate immune defects that might contribute to bacterial infections is not known. Here we have shown that loss of ATM impairs inflammasome-dependent anti-bacterial innate immunity. Cells from AT patients or Atm(-/-) mice exhibited diminished interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) production in response to bacteria. In vivo, Atm(-/-) mice were more susceptible to pulmonary S. pneumoniae infection in a manner consistent with inflammasome defects. Our data indicate that such defects were due to oxidative inhibition of inflammasome complex assembly. This study reveals an unanticipated function of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in negative regulation of inflammasomes and proposes a theory for the notable susceptibility of AT patients to pulmonary bacterial infection.

Calcium-responsive plasmid copy number regulation is dependent on discrete YopD domains in Yersinia pseudotuberculosis.

Yersinia pathogenicity depends mainly on a Type III Secretion System (T3SS) responsible for translocating effector proteins into the eukaryotic target cell cytosol. The T3SS is encoded on a 70 kb, low copy number virulence plasmid, pYV. A key T3SS regulator, YopD, is a multifunctional protein and consists of discrete modular domains that are essential for pore formation and translocation of Yop effectors. In Y. pseudotuberculosis, the temperature-dependent plasmid copy number increase that is essential for elevated T3SS gene dosage and virulence is also affected by YopD. Here, we found that the presence of intracellular YopD results in increased levels of the CopA-RNA and CopB, two inhibitors of plasmid replication. Secretion of YopD leads to decreased expression of copA and copB, resulting in increased plasmid copy number. Moreover, using a systematic mutagenesis of YopD mutants, we demonstrated that the same discrete modular domains important for YopD translocation are also necessary for both the regulation of plasmid copy number as well as copA and copB expression. Hence, Yersinia has evolved a mechanism coupling active secretion of a plasmid-encoded component of the T3SS, YopD, to the regulation of plasmid replication. Our work provides evidence for the cross-talk between plasmid-encoded functions with the IncFII replicon.

Spatiotemporal Variations in Growth Rate and Virulence Plasmid Copy Number during Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Infection.

Pathogenic Yersinia spp. depend on the activity of a potent virulence plasmid-encoded ysc/yop type 3 secretion system (T3SS) to colonize hosts and cause disease. It was recently shown that Yersinia pseudotuberculosis upregulates the virulence plasmid copy number (PCN) during infection and that the resulting elevated gene dose of plasmid-encoded T3SS genes is essential for virulence. When and how this novel regulatory mechanism is deployed and regulates the replication of the virulence plasmid during infection is unknown. In the present study, we applied droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) to investigate the dynamics of Y. pseudotuberculosis virulence PCN variations and growth rates in infected mouse organs. We demonstrated that both PCN and growth varied in different tissues and over time throughout the course of infection, indicating that the bacteria adapted to discrete microenvironments during infection. The PCN was highest in Peyer's patches and cecum during the clonal invasive phase of the infection, while the highest growth rates were found in the draining mesenteric lymph nodes. In deeper, systemic organs, the PCN was lower and more modest growth rates were recorded. Our study indicates that increased gene dosage of the plasmid-encoded T3SS genes is most important early in the infection during invasion of the host. The described ddPCR approach will greatly simplify analyses of PCN, growth dynamics, and bacterial loads in infected tissues and will be readily applicable to other infection models.

Characterization of the Ruler Protein Interaction Interface on the Substrate Specificity Switch Protein in the Yersinia Type III Secretion System.

Many pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria use the type III secretion system (T3SS) to deliver effector proteins into eukaryotic host cells. In Yersinia, the switch to secretion of effector proteins is induced first after intimate contact between the bacterium and its eukaryotic target cell has been established, and the T3SS proteins YscP and YscU play a central role in this process. Here we identify the molecular details of the YscP binding site on YscU by means of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The binding interface is centered on the C-terminal domain of YscU. Disrupting the YscU-YscP interaction by introducing point mutations at the interaction interface significantly reduced the secretion of effector proteins and HeLa cell cytotoxicity. Interestingly, the binding of YscP to the slowly self-cleaving YscU variant P264A conferred significant protection against autoproteolysis. The YscP-mediated inhibition of YscU autoproteolysis suggests that the cleavage event may act as a timing switch in the regulation of early versus late T3SS substrates. We also show that YscUC binds to the inner rod protein YscI with a dissociation constant (Kd ) of 3.8 µm and with 1:1 stoichiometry. The significant similarity among different members of the YscU, YscP, and YscI families suggests that the protein-protein interactions discussed in this study are also relevant for other T3SS-containing Gram-negative bacteria.

YopN Is Required for Efficient Effector Translocation and Virulence in Yersinia pseudotuberculosis.

Type III secretion systems (T3SSs) are used by various Gram-negative pathogens to subvert the host defense by a host cell contact-dependent mechanism to secrete and translocate virulence effectors. While the effectors differ between pathogens and determine the pathogenic life style, the overall mechanism of secretion and translocation is conserved. T3SSs are regulated at multiple levels, and some secreted substrates have also been shown to function in regulation. In Yersinia, one of the substrates, YopN, has long been known to function in the host cell contact-dependent regulation of the T3SS. Prior to contact, through its interaction with TyeA, YopN blocks secretion. Upon cell contact, TyeA dissociates from YopN, which is secreted by the T3SS, resulting in the induction of the system. YopN has also been shown to be translocated into target cells by a T3SS-dependent mechanism. However, no intracellular function has yet been assigned to YopN. The regulatory role of YopN involves the N-terminal and C-terminal parts, while less is known about the role of the central region of YopN. Here, we constructed different in-frame deletion mutants within the central region. The deletion of amino acids 76 to 181 resulted in an unaltered regulation of Yop expression and secretion but triggered reduced YopE and YopH translocation within the first 30 min after infection. As a consequence, this deletion mutant lost its ability to block phagocytosis by macrophages. In conclusion, we were able to differentiate the function of YopN in translocation and virulence from its function in regulation.

Type III secretion translocon assemblies that attenuate Yersinia virulence.

Type III secretion enables bacteria to intoxicate eukaryotic cells with anti-host effectors. A class of secreted cargo are the two hydrophobic translocators that form a translocon pore in the host cell plasma membrane through which the translocated effectors may gain cellular entry. In pathogenic Yersinia, YopB and YopD shape this translocon pore. Here, four in cis yopD mutations were constructed to disrupt a predicted α-helix motif at the C-terminus. Mutants YopD(I262P) and YopD(K267P) poorly localized Yop effectors into target eukaryotic cells and failed to resist uptake and killing by immune cells. These defects were due to deficiencies in host-membrane insertion of the YopD-YopB translocon. Mutants YopDA(263P) and YopD(A270P) had no measurable in vitro translocation defect, even though they formed smaller translocon pores in erythrocyte membranes. Despite this, all four mutants were attenuated in a mouse infection model. Hence, YopD variants have been generated that can spawn translocons capable of targeting effectors in vitro, yet were bereft of any lethal effect in vivo. Therefore, Yop translocators may possess other in vivo functions that extend beyond being a portal for effector delivery into host cells.

Translocation of surface-localized effectors in type III secretion.

Pathogenic Yersinia species suppress the host immune response by using a plasmid-encoded type III secretion system (T3SS) to translocate virulence proteins into the cytosol of the target cells. T3SS-dependent protein translocation is believed to occur in one step from the bacterial cytosol to the target-cell cytoplasm through a conduit created by the T3SS upon target cell contact. Here, we report that T3SS substrates on the surface of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis are translocated into target cells. Upon host cell contact, purified YopH coated on Y. pseudotuberculosis was specifically and rapidly translocated across the target-cell membrane, which led to a physiological response in the infected cell. In addition, translocation of externally added YopH required a functional T3SS and a specific translocation domain in the effector protein. Efficient, T3SS-dependent translocation of purified YopH added in vitro was also observed when using coated Salmonella typhimurium strains, which implies that T3SS-mediated translocation of extracellular effector proteins is conserved among T3SS-dependent pathogens. Our results demonstrate that polarized T3SS-dependent translocation of proteins can be achieved through an intermediate extracellular step that can be reconstituted in vitro. These results indicate that translocation can occur by a different mechanism from the assumed single-step conduit model.

Sensitive and Specific Analyses of Colorectal Cancer Recurrence through Multiplex superRCA Mutation Detection in Blood Plasma.

Mutation analysis of circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) has applications in monitoring of colorectal cancer (CRC) patients for recurrence. Considering the low tumor fraction of ctDNA in cell-free DNA (cfDNA) isolated from blood plasma, the sensitivity of the detection method is important. Here, plasma DNA collected at diagnosis and follow-up from 25 CRC patients was analyzed using a multiplex superRCA mutation detection assay. The assay was also performed on genomic DNA (gDNA) from tumor and normal tissue from 20 of these patients. The lower limit of detection for most sequence variants was in the range of 10-5, while when analyzing cfDNA from plasma with a typical input of 33 ng, the practical detection limit was ~10-4 or 0.01% mutant allele frequency (MAF). In 17 of 19 patients with identified hotspot mutations in tumor gDNA, at least one hotspot mutation could be detected in plasma DNA at the time of diagnosis. The MAF increased at subsequent time points in four of the patients who experienced a clinical relapse. Multiplex superRCA analysis of the remaining six patients did not reveal any hotspot mutations. In conclusion, multiplex superRCA assays proved suitable for monitoring CRC patients by analyzing hotspot mutations in cfDNA, and dynamic changes in MAF were observed in patients with clinical relapse.

Effect of pyruvate on the metabolic regulation of nitrogenase activity in Rhodospirillum rubrum in darkness.

Rhodospirillum rubrum, a photosynthetic diazotroph, is able to regulate nitrogenase activity in response to environmental factors such as ammonium ions or darkness, the so-called switch-off effect. This is due to reversible modification of the Fe-protein, one of the two components of nitrogenase. The signal transduction pathway(s) in this regulatory mechanism is not fully understood, especially not in response to darkness. We have previously shown that the switch-off response and metabolic state differ between cells grown with dinitrogen or glutamate as the nitrogen source, although both represent poor nitrogen sources. In this study we show that pyruvate affects the response to darkness in cultures grown with glutamate as nitrogen source, leading to a response similar to that in cultures grown with dinitrogen. The effects are related to P(II) protein uridylylation and glutamine synthetase activity. We also show that pyruvate induces de novo protein synthesis and that inhibition of pyruvate formate-lyase leads to loss of nitrogenase activity in the dark.

Measurement of Yersinia Translocon Pore Formation in Erythrocytes.

Many Gram-negative pathogens produce a type III secretion system capable of intoxicating eukaryotic cells with immune-modulating effector proteins. Fundamental to this injection process is the prior secretion of two translocator proteins destined for injectisome translocon pore assembly within the host cell plasma membrane. It is through this pore that effectors are believed to travel to gain access to the host cell interior. Yersinia species especially pathogenic to humans and animals assemble this translocon pore utilizing two hydrophobic translocator proteins-YopB and YopD. Although a full molecular understanding of the biogenesis, function and regulation of this translocon pore and subsequent effector delivery into host cells remains elusive, some of what we know about these processes can be attributed to studies of bacterial infections of erythrocytes. Herein we describe the methodology of erythrocyte infections by Yersinia, and how analysis of the resultant contact-dependent hemolysis can serve as a relative measurement of YopB- and YopD-dependent translocon pore formation.

Two pathways of electron transport to nitrogenase in Rhodospirillum rubrum: the major pathway is dependent on the fix gene products.

In the photosynthetic bacterium Rhodospirillum rubrum, as in many other diazotrophs, electron transport to nitrogenase has not been characterized in great detail. In this study, we show that there are two pathways operating in R. rubrum. The products of the fix genes constitute the major pathway operating under heterotrophic conditions, whereas a pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, encoded by the nifJ gene, may play a central role under anaerobic conditions in the dark. In both systems, ferredoxin N is the main direct electron donor to dinitrogenase reductase. Furthermore, we suggest from studying mutants lacking components in one or both systems under different conditions, that the Fix system operates most efficiently under conditions when a proton motive force is generated. A model for our current view of the electron transfer pathways in R. rubrum is presented.

The Amino-Terminal Part of the Needle-Tip Translocator LcrV of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Is Required for Early Targeting of YopH and In vivo Virulence.

Type III secretion systems (T3SS) are dedicated to targeting anti-host effector proteins into the cytosol of the host cell to promote bacterial infection. Delivery of the effectors requires three specific translocator proteins, of which the hydrophilic translocator, LcrV, is located at the tip of the T3SS needle and is believed to facilitate insertion of the two hydrophobic translocators into the host cell membrane. Here we used Yersinia as a model to study the role of LcrV in T3SS mediated intracellular effector targeting. Intriguingly, we identified N-terminal lcrV mutants that, similar to the wild-type protein, efficiently promoted expression, secretion and intracellular levels of Yop effectors, yet they were impaired in their ability to inhibit phagocytosis by J774 cells. In line with this, the YopH mediated dephosphorylation of Focal Adhesion Kinase early after infection was compromised when compared to the wild type strain. This suggests that the mutants are unable to promote efficient delivery of effectors to their molecular targets inside the host cell upon host cell contact. The significance of this was borne out by the fact that the mutants were highly attenuated for virulence in the systemic mouse infection model. Our study provides both novel and significant findings that establish a role for LcrV in early targeting of effectors in the host cell.

Increased plasmid copy number is essential for Yersinia T3SS function and virulence.

Pathogenic bacteria have evolved numerous virulence mechanisms that are essential for establishing infections. The enterobacterium Yersinia uses a type III secretion system (T3SS) encoded by a 70-kilobase, low-copy, IncFII-class virulence plasmid. We report a novel virulence strategy in Y. pseudotuberculosis in which this pathogen up-regulates the plasmid copy number during infection. We found that an increased dose of plasmid-encoded genes is indispensable for virulence and substantially elevates the expression and function of the T3SS. Remarkably, we observed direct, tight coupling between plasmid replication and T3SS function. This regulatory pathway provides a framework for further exploration of the environmental sensing mechanisms of pathogenic bacteria.

Electron transport to nitrogenase in Rhodospirillum rubrum: identification of a new fdxN gene encoding the primary electron donor to nitrogenase.

In our efforts to determine the components participating in the electron transport to nitrogenase in Rhodospirillum rubrum, we have identified a gene encoding a new ferredoxin. We have generated mutants in both the new ferredoxin and ferredoxin I and demonstrate that the new ferredoxin, FdN and not the previously identified FdI is the main donor of electrons to nitrogenase.

The RACK1 signaling scaffold protein selectively interacts with Yersinia pseudotuberculosis virulence function.

Many gram-negative bacteria use type III secretion systems to translocate effector proteins into host cells. These effectors interfere with cellular functions in a highly regulated manner resulting in effects that are beneficial for the bacteria. The pathogen Yersinia can resist phagocytosis by eukaryotic cells by translocating Yop effectors into the target cell cytoplasm. This is called antiphagocytosis, and constitutes an important virulence feature of this pathogen since it allows survival in immune cell rich lymphoid organs. We show here that the virulence protein YopK has a role in orchestrating effector translocation necessary for productive antiphagocytosis. We present data showing that YopK influences Yop effector translocation by modulating the ratio of the pore-forming proteins YopB and YopD in the target cell membrane. Further, we show that YopK that can interact with the translocators, is exposed inside target cells and binds to the eukaryotic signaling protein RACK1. This protein is engaged upon Y. pseudotuberculosis-mediated ß1-integrin activation and localizes to phagocytic cups. Cells with downregulated RACK1 levels are protected from antiphagocytosis. This resistance is not due to altered levels of translocated antiphagocytic effectors, and cells with reduced levels of RACK1 are still sensitive to the later occurring cytotoxic effect caused by the Yop effectors. Further, a yopK mutant unable to bind RACK1 shows an avirulent phenotype during mouse infection, suggesting that RACK1 targeting by YopK is a requirement for virulence. Together, our data imply that the local event of Yersinia-mediated antiphagocytosis involves a step where YopK, by binding RACK1, ensures an immediate specific spatial delivery of antiphagocytic effectors leading to productive inhibition of phagocytosis.

The fixABCX genes in Rhodospirillum rubrum encode a putative membrane complex participating in electron transfer to nitrogenase.

In our efforts to identify the components participating in electron transport to nitrogenase in Rhodospirillum rubrum, we used mini-Tn5 mutagenesis followed by metronidazole selection. One of the mutants isolated, SNT-1, exhibited a decreased growth rate and about 25% of the in vivo nitrogenase activity compared to the wild-type values. The in vitro nitrogenase activity was essentially wild type, indicating that the mutation affects electron transport to nitrogenase. Sequencing showed that the Tn5 insertion is located in a region with a high level of similarity to fixC, and extended sequencing revealed additional putative fix genes, in the order fixABCX. Complementation of SNT-1 with the whole fix gene cluster in trans restored wild-type nitrogenase activity and growth. Using Western blotting, we demonstrated that expression of fixA and fixB occurs only under conditions under which nitrogenase also is expressed. SNT-1 was further shown to produce larger amounts of both ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase and polyhydroxy alkanoates than the wild type, indicating that the redox status is affected in this mutant. Using Western blotting, we found that FixA and FixB are soluble proteins, whereas FixC most likely is a transmembrane protein. We propose that the fixABCX genes encode a membrane protein complex that plays a central role in electron transfer to nitrogenase in R. rubrum. Furthermore, we suggest that FixC is the link between nitrogen fixation and the proton motive force generated in the photosynthetic reactions.