Salt-Affected Rocket Plants as a Possible Source of Glucosinolates.

Soil salinity can have various negative consequences on agricultural products, from their quality and production to their aesthetic traits. In this work, the possibility to use salt-affected vegetables, that otherwise would be discarded, as a source of nutraceuticals was explored. To this aim, rocket plants, a vegetable featuring bioactive compounds such as glucosinolates, were exposed to increasing NaCl concentrations in hydroponics and analysed for their content in bioactive compounds. Salt levels higher than 68 mM produced rocket plants that did not comply with European Union regulations and would therefore be considered a waste product. Anyway, our findings, obtained by Liquid Chromatography-High Resolution Mass Spectrometry, demonstrated a significant increase in glucosinolates levels in such salt-affected plants. opening the opportunity for a second life of these market discarded products to be recycled as glucosinolates source. Furthermore, an optimal situation was found at NaCl 34 mM in which not only were the aesthetic traits of rocket plants not affected, but also the plants revealed a significant enrichment in glucosinolates. This can be considered an advantageous situation in which the resulting vegetables still appealed to the market and showed improved nutraceutical aspects.

Anatomical Investigation and GC/MS Analysis of 'Coco de Mer', Lodoicea maldivica (Arecaceae).

Lodoicea maldivica (J.F.Gmel.) Pers. (Arecaceae), 'Coco de Mer', is a palm, growing as endemic in the Seychelles islands. Its fruit weighs up to 20 kg and is characterized by a fleshy and fibrous envelope surrounding the nutlike portion. The present work combines a morpho-anatomical and a phytochemical analysis of the fruit exocarp and mesocarp. The exocarp is composed by a layer of palisade cells. The mesocarp is characterized by vascular bundles and by sclereids. In the aerenchyma, the internal zone of the mesocarp, cells aggregates were positive to phenols, while idioblasts were positive to terpenes. We performed a GC/MS analysis with a semi-quantitative relative amount calculation of the recorded compounds. The GC/MS essential oil profile revealed the dominance of acyclic sesquiterpenoids (53.95 %), followed by bicyclic sesquiterpenoids (31.69 %), monoterpenes (11.89 %) and monocyclic sesquiterpenoids (2.44 %). The terpenes detected in higher amounts, ß-caryophyllene and bicyclogermacrene, are known for activity against insect larvae, but have been proposed as antiviral candidates against SARS-CoV-2. The third compound in amount, aromadendrene, is active against bacteria and, again, known to possess insecticidal properties.

Complexation of short ds RNA/DNA oligonucleotides with Gemini micelles: a time resolved SAXS and computational study.

Gene therapy is based on nucleic acid delivery to pathogenic cells in order to modulate their gene expression. The most used non viral vectors are lipid-based nanoaggregates, which are safer than viral carriers and have been shown to assemble easily with both DNA and RNA. However, the transfection efficiency of non viral carriers still needs to be improved before intensive practise in clinical trials can be implemented. For this purpose, the in depth characterization of the complexes formed by nucleic acids and their transporters is of great relevance. In particular, information on the structure and assembly mechanism can be useful to improve our general knowledge of these artificial transfection agents. In this paper, the complexation mechanism of short interfering RNA and DNA molecules (siRNA and siDNA, respectively) with cationic micelles is investigated by combining small angle X-ray scattering experiments and molecular dynamics simulations. Micelles were obtained by Gemini surfactants with different spacer lengths (12-3-12, 12-6-12). The siRNA and siDNA used were double strand molecules characterized by the same length and homologous sequence, in order to perform a close comparison. We showed that complexes appear in solution immediately after mixing and, therefore, the investigation of complex formation requires fast experimental techniques, such as time resolved synchrotron SAXS (Tr-SAXS). The obtained systems had internal arrangement constituted by layers of squeezed micelles alternating the nucleic acids. Both SAXS and MD analyses allowed us to evaluate the mean size of complexes in the range of a few nanometers, with looser and less ordered stacking for the DNA containing aggregates.

Time resolved SAXS to study the complexation of siRNA with cationic micelles of divalent surfactants.

The complexation of siRNA (small interfering RNA) with cationic micelles was studied using time dependent synchrotron SAXS. Micelles were formed by two types of divalent cationic surfactants, i.e. Gemini bis(quaternary ammonium) bromide with variable spacer length (12-3-12, 12-6-12, 12-12-12) and a weak electrolyte surfactant (SH14) with triazine head. Immediately after mixing (t < 50 ms), new large aggregates appeared in solution and the scattering intensity at low q increased. Concomitantly, the presence of a quasi-Bragg peak at q ∼ 1.5 nm(-1) indicated core structuring within the complexes. We hypothesize that siRNA and micelles are alternately arranged into "sandwiches", forming domains with internal structural coherence. The process of complex reorganization followed a first-order kinetics and was completed in less than about 5 minutes, after which a steady state was reached. Aggregates containing Geminis were compact globular structures whose gyration radii Rg depended on the spacer length and were in the order of 7-27 nm. Complexes containing SH14 (Rg = 14-16 nm) were less ordered and possessed a looser internal arrangement. The obtained data, joint with previous structural investigation using Dynamic Light Scattering, Zeta Potential and Small Angle Neutron Scattering, are encouraging evidence for using these systems in biological trials. In fact we showed that transfection agents can be obtained by simply mixing a micelle solution of the cationic surfactant and a siRNA solution, both of which are easily prepared and stable.

An Integrative Approach to Selected Species of Tanacetum L. (Asteraceae): Insights into Morphology and Phytochemistry.

In this work, we studied Tanacetum vulgare, Tanacetum parthenium, and Tanacetum corymbosum (Asteraceae) cultivated at the Ghirardi Botanic Garden (Toscolano Maderno, Brescia, Northern Italy) of the University of Milan. An integrative research approach was adopted: microscopic and histochemical, with special focus on the secretory structures responsible for the productivity of secondary metabolites; phytochemical, with the analysis of the essential oil (EO) profiles from the air-dried, flowered aerial parts collected in June 2021; bio-ecological, with emphasis, based on literature data, on the ecology and biological activity of the main EO components. In all three species, two basic trichome morphotypes (flagellar non-glandular and biseriate glandular) occurred with different distribution patterns. The glandular ones produced terpenes, along with flavonoids. A high level of chemical variability in the EO compositions emerged, specifically for qualitative data. T. vulgare profile was more complex and heterogeneous than those obtained from T. parthenium and T. corymbosum, with camphor as the predominant compound, followed by farnesol and α-santalone, respectively. Finally, the obtained scientific findings were made available to the visitors of the botanic garden through new dissemination labeling that highlights the "invisible", microscopic features of the plants, from an Open Science perspective ("Botanic Garden, factories of molecules…work in progress"-Lombardy Region Project Lr. 25/2016, year 2021).

Ants avoid food contaminated with micro- and nanoplastics.

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNP) have recently received particular attention in freshwater and marine ecosystems, but less is known about their impact on terrestrial species. Ants can be used as biological indicators for many types of pollutants and are therefore a good candidate to explore the effects of MNP pollution. In the present study, we investigated the ability of workers from seven colonies of the acrobat ant Crematogaster scutellaris to detect MNP in their food. After two days of starvation, groups of ten ants were tested for their preference toward control and polyethylene-treated solutions. Every 5 min over a total 20 min period, the number of workers feeding on either solution was counted. The results showed that C. scutellaris workers could detect and avoid contaminated food, feeding more often on the uncontaminated solution in the first 10 min. However, after 10 min the food preference was no longer significant between the groups, likely owing to feeding satiation. We then assessed whether this feeding behaviour is sufficient to cause the accumulation of MNP in the ant. We thereby provided a solution containing fluorescent MNP (fMNP) at the same concentration as in the previous experiments. Observation of the ants' mouthparts using fluorescent light microscopy showed that after 10 min dense aggregations of fMNP were visible. Further investigations are needed to understand the mechanisms of detection of MNP by ants, and the accumulation dynamics in ants' bodies. Moreover, the effects of MNP on the integrity and fitness of ant colonies, as well as the potential transfer across terrestrial trophic chains should be explored.

Growth, physiological parameters and DNA methylation in Spirodela polyrhiza (L.) Schleid exposed to PET micro-nanoplastic contaminated waters.

The effects of polyethylene terephthalate micro-nanoplastics (PET-MNPs) were tested on the model freshwater species Spirodela polyrhiza (L.) Schleid., with focus on possible particle-induced epigenetic effects (i.e. alteration of DNA methylation status). MNPs (size âˆ¼ 200-300 nm) were produced as water dispersions from PET bottles through repeated cycles of homogenization and used to prepare N-medium at two environmentally relevant concentrations (∼0.05 g L-1 and ∼0.1 g L-1 of MNPs). After 10 days of exposure, a reduction in fresh and dry weight was observed in treated plants, even if the average specific growth rate for both frond number and area was not altered. Impaired growth was coupled with a MNP-induced decrease of chlorophyll fluorescence parameters (i.e. ΨETo and Piabs, indicators of photochemical efficiency) and starch concentration, as well as with alterations in plant ionomic profile and oxidative status. The methylation-sensitive amplification polymorphism (MSAP) technique was used to assess possible changes in DNA methylation levels induced by plastic particles. The analysis showed unusual hypermethylation in 5'-CCGG sites that could be implicated in DNA protection from dangerous agents (i.e. reactive oxygen species) or in the formation of new epialleles. This work represents the first evidence of MNP-induced epigenetic modifications in the plant world.

Impact of airborne iron oxide nanoparticles on Tillandsia usneoides as a model plant to assess pollution in heavy traffic areas.

Due to the increasing evidence of widespread sub-micron pollutants in the atmosphere, the impact of airborne nanoparticles is a subject of great relevance. In particular, the smallest particles are considered the most active and dangerous, having a higher surface/volume ratio. Here we tested the effect of iron oxide (Fe3O4) nanoparticles (IONPs) with different mean diameter and size distribution on the model plant Tillandsia usneoides. Strands were placed in home-built closed boxes and exposed to levels of airborne IONPs reported for the roadside air, i.e. in the order of 107 - 108 items m-2. Plant growth and other morpho-physiological parameters were monitored for two weeks, showing that exposure to IONPs significantly reduced the length increment of the treated strands with respect to controls. A dose-dependence of this impairing effect was found only for particles with mean size of a few tens of nanometers. These were also proved to be the most toxic at the highest concentration tested. The IONP-induced hamper in growth was correlated with altered concentration of macro- and micronutrients in the plant, while no significant variation in photosynthetic activity was detected in treated samples. Microscopy investigation showed that IONPs could adhere to the plant surface and were preferentially located on the trichome wings. Our results report, for the first time, evidence of the negative effects of airborne IONP pollution on plant health, thus raising concerns about related environmental risks. Future research should be devoted to other plant species and pollutants to assess the impact of airborne pollution on plants and devise suitable attenuation practices.

Saline Stress Impairs Lipid Storage Mobilization during Germination in Eruca sativa.

Soil salinization become worse in the last decades, leading to reduced crop yields, especially in the Mediterranean basin. Eruca sativa is a common species cultivated in this area with remarkable economic importance. This study aimed at investigating the effect of salinity on this plant, focusing on (i) seedling development in terms of variations in germination and growth parameters and (ii) anatomical and ultra-structural changes in the morphology of cotyledons. For this reason, seeds were treated with different salinity levels ranging from 137 to 548 mM NaCl. Seed germination was delayed by all the concentrations tested, but only above 137 mM seedling growth was impaired. Results showed a high occurrence of lipid bodies within the mesophyll cells of cotyledons of seedlings exposed to salt concentrations above 137 mM, suggesting an impairment in lipid mobilization caused by salinity during plant development. The cotyledons of treated seedlings showed reduced intercellular spaces and ultrastructural changes in chloroplasts and peroxisomes. Moreover, salt-induced autophagic processes were present in samples grown at the highest NaCl levels. Interestingly, at 137 mM NaCl, seedlings showed the highest values of mesophyll thickness and fresh weight, implying a possible mechanism of salt adaptation during germination.

Blue and Yellow Light Induce Changes in Biochemical Composition and Ultrastructure of Limnospira fusiformis (Cyanoprokaryota).

Limnospira fusiformis (also known as Spirulina) is a cyanobacterium that is widely cultivated due to its economic importance. It has specific pigments such as phycocyanin that allow it to grow at different light wavelengths compared to other cultivated algae. Our study investigated the effect of yellow (590 nm) and blue (460 nm) light fields on various biochemical features, including the pigment concentration, protein content, dry weight, and cell ultrastructure of L. fusiformis. Our findings revealed that biomass growth was faster in yellow light compared to blue light, with a higher relative amount of proteins even after one day of exposure. However, after eight days, the relative protein content in yellow versus blue light was not statistically different. Furthermore, in yellow light, we observed a decrease in chlorophyll a, an increase in cyanophycin granules, and an increase in the amount of dilated thylakoids. On the other hand, in blue light, there was an increase in phycocyanin after one day, along with an increase in electron-dense bodies, which are attributable to carboxysomes. However, after eight days, the differences in pigment content compared to the control were not statistically significant. Our study showed that using specific wavelengths during the harvesting phase of spirulina growth can enhance phycocyanin content with blue light (after one day) and biomass, growth rates, and protein content with yellow light after six days. This highlights the biotechnological potential of this approach.

Tannins-lignin mixed nanoformulations for improving the potential of neem oil as fungicide agent.

Sustainability and circular economy are increasingly pushing for the search of natural materials to foster antiparasitic treatments, especially in the case of economically relevant agricultural cultivations, such as grapevine. In this work, we propose to deliver neem oil, a natural biopesticide loaded into novel nanovectors (nanocapsules) which were fabricated using a scalable procedure starting from Kraft lignin and grapeseed tannins. The obtained formulations were characterized in terms of size and Zeta potential, showing that almost all the nanocapsules had size in the suitable range for delivery purposes (mean diameter 150-300 nm), with low polydispersity and sufficient stability to ensure long shelf life. The target microorganisms were three reference fungal pathogens of grapevine (Botrytis cinerea, Phaeoacremonium minimum, Phaeomoniella chlamydospora), responsible for recurrent diseases on this crop: grey mold or berry rot by B. cinerea and diseases of grapevine wood within the Esca complex of diseases. Results showed that grapeseed tannins did not promote inhibitory effects, either alone or in combination with Kraft lignin. On the contrary, the efficacy of neem oil against P. minimum was boosted by more than 1-2 orders of magnitude and the parasite growth inhibition was higher with respect to a widely used commercial pesticide, while no additional activity was detected against P. chlamydospora and B. cinerea.

Fluorescent Labeling of Lignin Nanocapsules with Fluorol Yellow 088.

The microscopic visualization of nanoparticles in plants is crucial to elucidate the mechanisms of their uptake through the cell wall and plasma membrane and to localize the possible sites of their extracellular or intracellular accumulation. Lignin nanocarriers are polymeric hollow nanocapsules able to contain and transport several bioactive substances inside plant tissues. We describe here a method for the preparation of Fluorol Yellow 088-labeled lignin nanocapsules that allow their localization in plant organs and tissues by fluorescence microscopy.

Can microplastics threaten plant productivity and fruit quality? Insights from Micro-Tom and Micro-PET/PVC.

Solanum lycopersicum L., a crop grown worldwide with a high nutritional value for the human diet, was used to test the impact of microplastics on plant growth, productivity, and fruit quality. Two of the most represented microplastics in soils, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), were tested. Plants were grown in pots with an environmentally realistic concentration of microplastics and, during the whole crop life cycle, photosynthetic parameters, number of flowers and fruits were monitored. At the end of the cultivation, plant biometry and ionome were evaluated, along with fruit production and quality. Both pollutants had negligible effects on shoot traits, with only PVC causing a significant reduction in shoot fresh weight. Despite an apparent low or no toxicity during the vegetative stage, both microplastics decreased the number of fruits and, in the case of PVC, also their fresh weights. The plastic polymer-induced decline in fruit production was coupled with wide variations in fruit ionome, with marked increases in Ni and Cd. By contrast there was a decline in the nutritionally valuable lycopene, total soluble solids, and total phenols. Altogether, our results reveal that microplastics can not only limit crop productivity but also negatively impact fruit quality and enhance the concentration of food safety hazards, thus raising concerns for their potential health risks for humans.

Nanoformulations with exopolysaccharides from cyanobacteria: enhancing the efficacy of bioactive molecules in the Mediterranean fruit fly control.

The increasing demand for food has required intensive use of pesticides which are hazardous to the ecosystem. A valid alternative is represented by biopesticides; however, these molecules are often insoluble in water, and poorly bioavailable. Nanopesticides can be engineered to reach a selected target with controlled release of the active principle. In this work, capsaicin, an irritant alkaloid from hot chili peppers, and hydroxytyrosol, a phenolic compound obtained from extra-virgin olive oil by-products, were loaded into innovative nanocarriers. These were designed ad hoc combining exopolysaccharides from the cyanobacteria Neocyanospira capsulata, and a lipid component, i.e., egg phosphatidylcholine. The polysaccharide was chosen for chemical affinity with the chitin of insect exoskeleton, while the lipids were introduced to modulate the carrier rigidity. The newly formed nanosystems were characterized by physico-chemical techniques and tested for their possible use in pest control programs. The Mediterranean Fruit Fly Ceratitis capitata Wiedemann, 1824 (Diptera, Tephriditae), a pest of the Mediterranean Region causing high economic losses, was used as a model insect. We found that the nanoformulations nanocarriers prepared in this work, were able to increase the ovicidal effect of hydroxytyrosol. Moreover, the formulation encapsulating either hydroxytyrosol or capsaicin were able to reduce the number of females landing on treated apricots.

Xylem anatomy and hydraulic traits in Vitis grafted cuttings in view of their impact on the young grapevine decline.

Grapevine grafting is an essential practice in viticulture and over the years, various bench grafting techniques have been developed to mechanize the nursery process and to increase the yield in number of viable cuttings. Bench grafting is a fundamental nursery practice that can potentially affect the quality of propagation material also in young decline associated to grapevine trunk diseases and has been recently reported to influence leaf symptoms development associated with diseases of Esca complex. The study aimed to investigate how three bench grafting methods [i.e., (i) Omega graft as mechanical technique, (ii) Whip and Tongue graft as manual technique and (iii) Full Cleft graft as semi-mechanical technique] can influence these phenomena. Specifically, the different methods were compared for their effect on the anatomical development of the grafting point and the functionality of the xylem, also considering two factors: the grapevine cultivar (Cabernet Sauvignon, Glera and Teroldego) and the scion/rootstock diameter (thin and large). Observations by light microscopy on the anatomical evolution and measurements on the xylem morphology and hydraulic traits were correlated with the grafting methods and the investigated varieties. The anatomical observations revealed that the mechanical (Omega) and semi-mechanical (Full Cleft) grafting methods have a faster callusing response while the manual technique (Whip and Tongue) has a slower but greater vascularization of the differentiated callus. Significant differences between cultivars and/or grafting types were also detected in necrotic area on the grafted tissues. Statistical analysis of the grapevine vessels suggested differences in xylem parameters between cultivars, while grafting type had no significant effects. On the other hand, the grafting type significantly affected the intrinsic growth rate. The study confirms the potential incidence of lesions and dysfunctionalities correlated with the grafting method applied, which can potentially induce grafted vine declines in vineyards due to the necrotic area detected on the grafted tissues.

Plastic is in the air: Impact of micro-nanoplastics from airborne pollution on Tillandsia usneoides (L.) L. (Bromeliaceae) as a possible green sensor.

Due to the increasing evidence of widespread plastic pollution in the air, the impact on plants of airborne particles of polycarbonate (PC), polyethyleneterephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE), and polyvinylchloride (PVC) was tested by administering pristine and aged airborne micro-nanoplastics (MNPs) to Tillandsia usneoides for two weeks. Here we showed that exposure to pristine MNPs, significantly reduced plant growth with respect to controls. Particularly, PVC almost halved plant development at the end of the treatment, while the other plastics exerted negative effects on growth only at the beginning of the exposure, with final stages comparable to those of controls. Plants exposed to aged MNPs showed significantly decreased growth at early stages with PC, later in the growth with PE, and even later with PET. Aged PVC did not exert a toxic effect on plants. When present, the plastic-mediated reduction in plant growth was coupled with a decrease in photosynthetic activity and alterations in the plant concentration of macro- and micronutrients. The plastic particles were showed to adhere to the plant surface and, preferentially, on the trichome wings. Our results reported, for the first time, evidence of negative effects of airborne plastic pollution on plant health, thus raising concerns for related environmental risks.

Endophytic Bacteria Associated with Origanum heracleoticum L. (Lamiaceae) Seeds

Seed-associated microbiota are believed to play a crucial role in seed germination, seedling establishment, and plant growth and fitness stimulation, due to the vertical transmission of a core microbiota from seeds to the next generations. It might be hypothesized that medicinal and aromatic plants could use the seeds as vectors to vertically transfer beneficial endophytes, providing plants with metabolic pathways that could influence phytochemicals production. Here, we investigated the localization, the structure and the composition of the bacterial endophytic population that resides in Origanum heracleoticum L. seeds. Endocellular bacteria, surrounded by a wall, were localized close to the aleurone layer when using light and transmission electron microscopy. From surface-sterilized seeds, cultivable endophytes were isolated and characterized through RAPD analysis and 16S RNA gene sequencing, which revealed the existence of a high degree of biodiversity at the strain level and the predominance of the genus Pseudomonas. Most of the isolates grew in the presence of six selected antibiotics and were able to inhibit the growth of clinical and environmental strains that belong to the Burkholderia cepacia complex. The endophytes production of antimicrobial compounds could suggest their involvement in plant secondary metabolites production and might pave the way to endophytes exploitation in the pharmaceutical field.

A new method for the direct tracking of in vivo lignin nanocapsules in Eragrostis tef (Poaceae) tissues.

Environmental concerns have driven scientists to research new eco-friendly approaches for the preparation of nanosystems. For this purpose, novel bio-polymers have been selected. Among these, one of the most promising is lignin, which is biodegradable and biocompatible. Additionally, lignin is one of the main by-products of the paper industry and can be re-used in nanosystems building. Lignin-based nanosystems could be used in agriculture, to improve the uptake of bioactive compounds, thus avoiding soil pollution. However, the mechanism of penetration in the plant and the route of transportation within the internal plant tissues are unknown and need to be clearly elucidated. Here we present a method of lignin nanocapsules staining and tracking by fluorochrome: Fluoral Yellow 088, which is a well-suited dye for the tracking of lipids and other oil phases. Two different applications were applied: in the first one fourteen-day plants were soaked with fluorescent nanocapsules (fNCs) pure solution and in the second one, Eragrostis tef plants were laid down on blotting paper and soaked with diluted fNCs solution. Wetting the roots of Teff plantlets with the pure fNCs solution resulted in the most efficient way of nanocapsule entrance. The dyeing of lignin nanocapsules allowed us to track them in Eragrostis tef plant tissues through microscopic observations. In particular, fNCs were proven to be able to permeate roots, reaching xylem vessels where, through water pressure, they reached the leaf.

Lipoplexes from Non-viral Cationic Vectors: DOTAP-DOPE Liposomes and Gemini Micelles.

This chapter describes the topic of gene therapy based on colloidal drug delivery, as an alternative to the use of viral carriers. Non-viral vectors are promising transfection agents and do not suffer from limitations related to toxicity and immunogenic effects. In particular, lipid-based aggregates are generally considered biocompatible and versatile nanocarriers whose composition can be designed to include a cationic molecule which ensures strong interaction with nucleic acid. Herein the main issues related to complex formation and in vitro administration are illustrated with key examples, such as liposome-DNA plasmid (pDNA) association and micelles-siRNA complexes.

Advances in lipid-based platforms for RNAi therapeutics.

Sequence-specific gene silencing, known as RNA interference (RNAi), is a natural process that can be exploited for knocking-down specific genes involved in the insurgence/development of pathological processes. In 2001 the discovery that small interfering RNA (siRNA) can induce gene silencing without immunoresponse turned RNAi into a promising technique for the control of post-transcriptional gene expression. Nowadays, the major challenge remains infusion in vivo. Therefore, vehicles providing protection and selective transport are to be developed for efficient systemic delivery. The most used vectors are lipid-based, offering a wide range of biocompatible formulations. Here their application in molecular medicine is discussed, especially with regard to recent clinical trials where conventional therapies have failed. The role played by extended physicochemical characterization for the success of RNAi therapeutics is also evidenced.