Initial Development and Validation of a Brief Scale to Measure Genuine Happiness in the USA.

Genuine happiness can be described as an unlimited, everlasting inner joy and peace undisturbed by external circumstances. The current study proposes a Genuine Happiness Scale (GHS) with four items. The sample consisted of 678 US young adults, with 432 completing the online surveys twice, approximately six weeks apart. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis provided evidence for a unidimensional factor structure of the GHS. Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that, after controlling for genuine happiness at baseline, caring for bliss, mindfulness, and compassion predicted genuine happiness approximately six weeks later. In addition, genuine happiness predicted later well-being after controlling for well-being at baseline.

Gratitude, relatedness needs satisfaction, and negative psychological outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic: A short-term longitudinal study.

OBJECTIVES: Although gratitude relates to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) well-being outcomes in the United States, more evidence is needed to understand how this psychological strength reciprocally relates to mental health during this pandemic. This study examines the association of gratitude with stress, anxiety, and depression among undergraduate students in the United States via a longitudinal design. METHODS: An online survey was administered to 643 undergraduate students in a public university located in the southeastern region of the United States. There was a 1-month interval between the first and second waves of data collection. RESULTS: Cross-lagged panel structural equation modeling showed that whereas gratitude positively predicted subsequent relatedness needs satisfaction, it negatively predicted later stress, anxiety, and depression. Relatedness needs satisfaction was reciprocally linked to subsequent gratitude. CONCLUSION: Results suggest that gratitude might serve as a protective psychological resource against the detrimental mental health impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Divine Forgiveness and Well-being Among Emerging Adults in the USA.

Systematic research on divine forgiveness is notably absent from the literature on forgiveness. Two studies therefore explored the relationship between divine forgiveness and well-being, and what might account for any association found. Study 1 (N = 574) documented an inverse relationship between divine forgiveness and anxiety and showed that this relationship was mediated by attitude toward God. Study 2 (N = 430) replicated and extended the findings of the first study using a different measure of anxiety and documented a positive relationship between divine forgiveness and satisfaction with life. It also showed that both positive and negative evaluations of one's relationship with God mediated these relationships. These results emphasize the need for systematic research on divine forgiveness, and several directions for future research are outlined.

ADL and IADL Following Open-Heart Surgery: The Role of a Character Strength Factor and Preoperative Medical Comorbidities.

Open-heart surgery (OHS) is common in late life and is expected to improve functioning despite aging of OHS patients. Few studies have explored the influence of both psychosocial strength factors, metal health, and pre- and peri-OHS medical factors, including cardiac indices, on post-OHS functioning. This study explores the role of character strengths (e.g., hope and spirituality) in post-OHS activities of daily living (ADL) and instrumental ADL (IADL), along with cardiac indices used by all cardio-thoracic surgeons, after controlling for self-reported pre-OHS depression, quality of life indicators, and non-cardiac medical comorbidities. Three waves of interview data and cardiac/surgical indices in the Society of Thoracic Surgeon (STS) national database were collected for a cohort of 481 patients (age = 62 +, female 42%). Multiple linear regression was used to identify pre-OHS predictors of post-OHS functional status. ADL and IADL statuses after OHS were better among those who pursued pre-OHS positive spiritual/religious coping than those who did not. Outcomes were poorer for those reporting poor pre-OHS, higher numbers of medical comorbidities, and use of more post-OHS prayer for coping. Perfusion time, a proxy for surgical complexity, was associated with poor IADL only. Pre-OHS positive spiritual coping, a common coping means used among cardiac patients in medical crises, could have played a positive role in better post-OHS functional status during the post-OHS recovery month. Cardiac health providers should pay more attention to patient-centered character strengths and coping and non-cardiac conditions. More nuanced interdisciplinary research is necessary to identify mechanisms underlying these associations.

Forgiveness: protecting medical residents from the detrimental relationship between workplace bullying and wellness.

Bullying of medical residents is associated with numerous negative psychological and physiological outcomes. As bullying within this demographic grows, there is increased interest in identifying novel protective factors. Accordingly, this research investigated whether interpersonal forgiveness buffers the relationship between two forms of workplace bullying and indices of well-being. Medical residents (N = 134, 62% males) completed measures assessing person and work-related bullying victimization, dispositional forgiveness, and depressive symptoms and underwent a series of cardiovascular assessments during which cardiovascular reactivity was induced by a 3-min serial subtraction math task. It was hypothesized that the tendency to forgive would be negatively related to bullying victimization and that forgiveness would reduce the association of bullying with psychological distress (i.e. depressive symptoms), cognition errors (i.e. incorrect serial subtraction computations), and exaggerated cardiovascular reactivity and recovery. Findings show that forgiveness reduced the harmful relationship between the two forms of workplace bullying and depressive symptoms, serial subtraction errors, and cardiovascular reactivity and recovery for systolic blood pressure (SBP). Study results suggest that forgiveness may serve as an effective means for reducing the outcomes of bullying for medical residents. Implications for forgiveness interventions are discussed. Lay summary This research demonstrated that forgiveness reduced the harmful relationship between bullying victimization and negative outcomes (i.e. depressive symptoms, subtraction errors, and exaggerated cardiovascular reactivity and recovery for SBP) in medical residents. This study suggests that forgiveness may serve as a protective factor and provide an effective means for reducing the negative association between workplace bullying and negative outcomes.

Sanctification and Cheating Among Emerging Adults.

Cheating-a general term for extradyadic romantic or sexual behavior that violates expectations in a committed romantic relationship-is common and leads to a number of poor outcomes. Religion has historically influenced conceptions of romantic relationships, but societal attitudes about religion are in flux as many seek to retain spirituality even as affiliations with formal religion decrease. The present study evaluated a potential predictor of cheating that is more spiritual than formally religious, the "psychospiritual" concept of relationship sanctification (i.e., the idea that one's relationship itself is sacred). In a sample of college students in committed relationships (N = 716), we found that higher levels of self-reported relationship sanctification were associated with a lower likelihood of both physical and emotional cheating even when accounting for plausible alternate explanations (general religiosity, problematic alcohol use, and trait self-control). This association was mediated via permissive sexual attitudes; specifically, higher levels of sanctification were associated with less permissive sexual attitudes which, in turn, predicted a lower likelihood of emotional and physical cheating.

Prayer in Marriage to Improve Wellness: Relationship Quality and Cardiovascular Functioning.

This study examined daily partner-focused petitionary prayer (PFPP) on relationship communication and quality as well as novel indices of cardiovascular functioning in a sample of 90 adults. PFPP was compared to waitlist and meditation conditions over a 4-week period. Aortic hemodynamics via pulse wave analysis were assessed before and after the intervention. Factorial repeated measures analyses indicated that for those in the prayer condition, there were significant improvements in coronary perfusion, decreased left ventricular work, and increased coronary blood flow. Additionally, the perceived positive aspects of one's relationship improved for those in the prayer condition. Similar changes did not occur in waitlist and meditation conditions. Findings suggest that daily PFPP improves relationship quality and cardiovascular efficiency via improving protective cardiovascular mechanisms. Practical implications are briefly discussed.

Self-regulatory biofeedback training: an intervention to reduce school burnout and improve cardiac functioning in college students.

With the detrimental relationship between school burnout and physiological and cognitive functioning now well documented, interventions to ameliorate school burnout symptomology are needed. This study examined the effectiveness of a self-regulatory biofeedback intervention program (Heart Rate Variability Coherence Biofeedback Training [HRVCB]) in contrast to a protocol demonstrated to produce cognitive and physiological improvements (a high intensity interval training protocol [HIIT]) as well as a wait-list control condition at decreasing school burnout in an American collegiate sample (N = 90). Intervention training was conducted over a 4-week span (three sessions per week) with accompanying baseline and post-intervention assessments. In addition to measurements of school burnout and negative affect (depression and anxiety), intervention influences on cognition (via a serial subtraction task) and physiology (hemodynamics, electrocardiography, and a submaximal cardiorespiratory fitness test) were explored. Findings indicate HRVCB training significantly decreased school burnout and increased mathematical performance from pre- to post-intervention measurement. These changes did not occur for HIIT or waitlist participants. Brachial and aortic systolic blood pressure decreased pre to post-intervention for HRVCB but not HIIT or waitlist participants. Cardiovascular fitness (VO2max) improved pre to post-intervention for HIIT but not HRVCB or waitlist participants. Also, both HRVCB and HIIT training participants decreased heart rate from pre to post-intervention but not waitlist participants. Finally, all participants decreased cardiac sympathovagal tone from pre to post-intervention. These findings provide evidence that HRVCB training programs can decrease school burnout as well as improve components associated with cardiac health. Study limitations and directions for future research are discussed.

Unequally into "Us": Characteristics of Individuals in Asymmetrically Committed Relationships.

This study examined characteristics of individuals that are associated with being in asymmetrically committed relationships (ACRs), defined as romantic relationships in which there was a substantial difference in the commitment levels of the partners. These ACRs were studied in a national sample of unmarried, opposite-sex romantic relationships (N = 315 couples). Perceiving oneself as having more potential alternative partners was associated with increased odds of being the less committed partner in an ACR compared to not being in an ACR, as was being more attachment avoidant, having more prior relationship partners, and having a history of extradyadic sex during the present relationship. Additionally, having parents who never married was associated with being the less committed partner in an ACR but parental divorce was not. Although fewer characteristics were associated with being the more committed partner within an ACR, more attachment anxiety was associated with increased odds of being in such a position compared to not being in an ACR. We also address how some findings change when controlling for commitment levels. Overall, the findings advance understanding of commitment in romantic relationships, particularly when there are substantial asymmetries involved. Implications for both research on asymmetrical commitment as well as practice (e.g., therapy or relationship education) are discussed.

Este estudio examinó características de individuos que se encuentran en relaciones comprometidas asimétricamente (RCA), definidas como relaciones románticas en las que hay una diferencia significativa en los niveles de compromiso de cada pareja. Estas RCA fueron estudiadas en una muestra nacional de relaciones románticas solteras con el sexo opuesto (N = 315 parejas). La autopercepción de tener más alternativas posibles de parejas se asoció a una probabilidad mayor de ser la pareja menos comprometida en una RCA en comparación con no estar en una RCA, así como de evitar más los apegos, tener más parejas previas, y tener un historial de sexo extradiádico durante la relación actual. Además, tener padres que nunca se casaron se asoció a ser la pareja menos comprometida en una RCA, pero no así el divorcio de los padres. Aunque se asociaron menos características a ser la pareja más comprometida en una RCA, se asoció más ansiedad de apego a una probabilidad mayor de encontrarse en dicha posición en comparación con no estar en una RCA. También abordamos el tema de cómo cambian algunos hallazgos al controlar niveles de compromiso. En conjunto, los hallazgos avanzan el entendimiento del compromiso en relaciones románticas, especialmente cuando incluye asimetrías significativas. Se discuten las implicaciones tanto para la investigación del compromiso asimétrico así como la práctica (p.ej. terapia o educación de relaciones).

School burnout and heart rate variability: risk of cardiovascular disease and hypertension in young adult females.

Emerging research documents the relationship between school burnout and some indicators of increased cardiovascular risk. Indicators of cardiovascular functioning assessed via ambulatory blood pressure and heart rate variability (HRV) have not been thoroughly explored in this research domain. Therefore, the current study examined relationships between school burnout and indicators of cardiac functioning via 24 h ambulatory blood pressure (BP) and electrocardiogram monitoring in a sample of young adult female undergraduates (N = 88). Two hypotheses were tested: (1) that independent of related negative affective symptomology (depression and anxiety), increased school burnout would be related to greater systolic and diastolic BP, higher low frequency (LF) HRV and lower very low frequency (VLF) HRV, and (2) that lower VLF would be related to greater school burnout independently of LF HRV. Hierarchical multiple regression analyzes showed that school burnout was significantly related to elevated ambulatory BP (systolic and diastolic) and HRV markers of increased cardiac sympathovagal tone. These findings support the hypotheses and suggest that school burnout might be implicated in the development of pre-hypertension or early cardiovascular disease. Study limitations and the need for future longitudinal research are discussed.

Dispositional self-control: relationships with aerobic capacity and morning surge in blood pressure.

The psychological, behavioral and psychosocial implications of self-control are well established, but relatively little is known about its implications for physical health. This study examined the association between self-control and two important indicators of cardiovascular risk: morning blood pressure surge (MBPS) and maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max). Undergraduate students (N = 78) completed a measure of dispositional self-control (Brief Self-Control Scale), participated in a 24-h ambulatory assessment of heart rate (HR) and blood pressure (BP), and completed the YMCA Cycle Ergometer Submaximal Test. Regression analyzes yielded a significant positive relationship between self-control and VO2max. Results also indicated a significant negative association between self-control and MBPS, independent of average 24-h blood pressure and VO2max scores. These findings expand our understanding of the relationship between dispositional self-control and MBPS. Study limitations and directions for future research are discussed.

Couple Identity, Sacrifice, and Availability of Alternative Partners: Dedication in Friends With Benefits Relationships.

Friends with benefit relationships (FWB) combine elements of ongoing friendship and physical intimacy. Although many studies have examined predictors of who are likely to enter these relationships as well as their outcomes, we do not know what relational factors are associated with FWB relationship outcomes. This study examined the association between three commitment variables: couple identity, satisfaction with sacrifice, and alternative availability and FWB relationship adjustment and sexual satisfaction. In a young adult sample (n = 171), bivariate correlations demonstrated greater couple identity, more satisfaction with sacrifice, and less alternative availability which were associated with greater relationship adjustment, but not sexual satisfaction. In a multivariate context, satisfaction with sacrifice was the only significant predictor of FWB relationship adjustment. There was also a significant interaction between alternative availability and satisfaction with sacrifice in the prediction of sexual satisfaction. For those who perceived fewer alternative options, the degree to which they were satisfied with sacrificing for their partner was positively associated with sexual satisfaction. Implications for enhancing FWB relationships are discussed.

Impact of a motivated performance task on autonomic and hemodynamic cardiovascular reactivity.

Motivated performance (MP) tasks include mental stressors characterized by a high degree of motivation, individual engagement, and sympathetic overstimulation. It is therefore important to document the independent influence of motivation apart from engagement on markers of cardiovascular autonomic modulation, including vasomotor tone (low-frequency systolic blood pressure, LFSBP), blood pressure homeostasis (baroreflex sensitivity, BRS), and myocardial oxygen consumption (rate pressure product, RPP). Accordingly, an arithmetic task (AT) was used to manipulate motivation to evaluate its impact on cardiovascular reactivity. Forty-two young adults (Mage = 20.21 years, SD = 2.09) qualified for the study. After a 10-min resting period, electrocardiogram and finger beat-to-beat blood pressure were recorded at three distinct 5-min stages: baseline (BASE), AT, and recovery (REC). Prior to AT initiation, participants were randomized into two groups based on directions stating that the AT task was either designed to be entertaining and fun (low MP, LMP) or a test diagnostic of one's intelligence (high MP, HMP). Independent of task engagement ratings, motivation to complete the AT task as well as solution success was significantly greater in the HMP than the LMP condition. Regarding physiological parameters, two (LMP vs. HMP) × three (BASE, AT, REC) repeated measures ANOVAs revealed no significant baseline differences but a significant higher order interaction indicating that in comparison to LMP, individuals in the HMP condition had significantly higher vasomotor tone and myocardial oxygen consumption but not BRS. Greater motivation during a performance task may provide the substrate for the development of adverse cardiovascular events by increasing sympathetic activity and ultimately increasing myocardial oxygen demand which could lead to acute coronary syndromes.

Understanding the physiology of mindfulness: aortic hemodynamics and heart rate variability.

Data were collected to examine autonomic and hemodynamic cardiovascular modulation underlying mindfulness from two independent samples. An initial sample (N = 185) underwent laboratory assessments of central aortic blood pressure and myocardial functioning to investigated the association between mindfulness and cardiac functioning. Controlling for religiosity, mindfulness demonstrated a strong negative relationship with myocardial oxygen consumption and left ventricular work but not heart rate or blood pressure. A second sample (N = 124) underwent a brief (15 min) mindfulness inducing intervention to examine the influence of mindfulness on cardiovascular autonomic modulation via blood pressure variability and heart rate variability. The intervention had a strong positive effect on cardiovascular modulation by decreasing cardiac sympathovagal tone, vasomotor tone, vascular resistance and ventricular workload. This research establishes a link between mindfulness and cardiovascular functioning via correlational and experimental methodologies in samples of mostly female undergraduates. Future directions for research are outlined.

Parental experiences of racial discrimination and youth racial socialization in two-parent African American families.

OBJECTIVES: Parents experiencing racial discrimination are likely to transmit racial socialization messages to their children to protect them from future injustices. This study was conducted to better understand the role of parents' racial discrimination in their racial socialization practices for 2-parent African American families. METHOD: Using a sample from the Promoting Strong African American Families (N = 322 couples) program, we examined the effects of experienced discrimination on one's own and one's partner's racial socialization practices with male (n = 154) and female (n = 168) offspring. RESULTS: Multiple-group actor-partner interdependence models showed that racial discrimination was associated with racial socialization practices. In addition, maternal experiences of discrimination had stronger relations to socialization messages relayed to daughters and greater paternal experiences of discrimination had stronger relations to socialization messages given to sons. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates variability in how male and female children in African American families are socialized as a result of their parents' experiences with racial discrimination.

Relationship Dissolution and Psychologically Aggressive Dating Relationships: Preliminary Findings From a College-Based Relationship Education Course.

This study evaluated the impact of a relationship education program, delivered as part of a college course, among students (N = 152) who reported experiencing psychological aggression in their exclusive dating relationship. Preliminary results showed that compared to those in the control group, participants receiving relationship education were significantly more likely to end their romantic relationship, even after controlling for relationship satisfaction. Furthermore, when relationship termination occurred, those in the intervention group were significantly more likely to attribute the breakup to their participation in the class as compared to those in the control group. The tentative findings are an important preliminary step in assessing the benefits of relationship education in reducing the risk of psychological aggression among college students.

Long term ablation of protein kinase A (PKA)-mediated cardiac troponin I phosphorylation leads to excitation-contraction uncoupling and diastolic dysfunction in a knock-in mouse model of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.

The cardiac troponin I (cTnI) R21C (cTnI-R21C) mutation has been linked to hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and renders cTnI incapable of phosphorylation by PKA in vivo. Echocardiographic imaging of homozygous knock-in mice expressing the cTnI-R21C mutation shows that they develop hypertrophy after 12 months of age and have abnormal diastolic function that is characterized by longer filling times and impaired relaxation. Electrocardiographic analyses show that older R21C mice have elevated heart rates and reduced cardiovagal tone. Cardiac myocytes isolated from older R21C mice demonstrate that in the presence of isoproterenol, significant delays in Ca(2+) decay and sarcomere relaxation occur that are not present at 6 months of age. Although isoproterenol and stepwise increases in stimulation frequency accelerate Ca(2+)-transient and sarcomere shortening kinetics in R21C myocytes from older mice, they are unable to attain the corresponding WT values. When R21C myocytes from older mice are treated with isoproterenol, evidence of excitation-contraction uncoupling is indicated by an elevation in diastolic calcium that is frequency-dissociated and not coupled to shorter diastolic sarcomere lengths. Myocytes from older mice have smaller Ca(2+) transient amplitudes (2.3-fold) that are associated with reductions (2.9-fold) in sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) content. This abnormal Ca(2+) handling within the cell may be attributed to a reduction (2.4-fold) in calsequestrin expression in conjunction with an up-regulation (1.5-fold) of Na(+)-Ca(2+) exchanger. Incubation of permeabilized cardiac fibers from R21C mice with PKA confirmed that the mutation prevents facilitation of mechanical relaxation. Altogether, these results indicate that the inability to enhance myofilament relaxation through cTnI phosphorylation predisposes the heart to abnormal diastolic function, reduced accessibility of cardiac reserves, dysautonomia, and hypertrophy.

School burnout: increased sympathetic vasomotor tone and attenuated ambulatory diurnal blood pressure variability in young adult women.

Two studies examined autonomic and cardiovascular functioning that may link school burnout to cardiovascular risk factors in young healthy adult females. Study 1 (N = 136) investigated whether school burnout was related to resting values of blood pressure (BP) and blood pressure variability (BPV) through laboratory beat-to-beat BP assessment. Study 2 (N = 94) examined the link between school burnout and diurnal BPV through ambulatory BP monitoring. Controlling for anxiety and depressive symptomatology, school burnout demonstrated strong positive relationships with indices of cardiac sympathovagal tone, sympathetic vasomotor tone, inefficient myocardial oxygen consumption, increased 24-h ambulatory heart rate and BP, blunted BP diurnal variability, and increased arterial stiffness. These studies establish cardiovascular biomarkers of school burnout and suggest that even in a seemingly healthy sample school burnout may predispose females to increased cardiovascular risk. Several future lines of research are outlined.

The influence of pornography on sexual scripts and hooking up among emerging adults in college.

The explosive growth in access to the Internet has led to a commensurate increase in the availability, anonymity, and affordability of pornography. An emerging body of research has shown associations between pornography and certain behaviors and attitudes; yet, how pornography actually influences these outcomes has not been documented. In two studies (Study 1 N = 969; Study 2 N = 992) we examined the hypothesis that pornography influences potentially risky sexual behavior (hooking up) among emerging adults via sexual scripts. Our results demonstrate that more frequent viewing of pornography is associated with a higher incidence of hooking up and a higher number of unique hook up partners. We replicated these effects both cross-sectionally and longitudinally while accounting for the stability of hook ups over the course of an academic semester. We also demonstrated that more frequent viewing of pornography is associated with having had more previous sexual partners of all types, more one occasion sexual partners ("one night stands"), and plans to have a higher number of sexual partners in the future. Finally, we provided evidence that more permissive sexual scripts mediated the association between more frequent pornography viewing and hooking up. We discuss these findings with an eye toward mitigating potential personal and public health risks among emerging adults.

Diverse reactions to hooking up among U.S. university students.

Hooking up is defined as a physical encounter between two people who are not romantically committed. This study explored whether there were subgroups of young adults with unique reactions to hooking up (N = 879). Psychosocial predictor variables (gender, depression, loneliness, intoxication level, college adjustment, and hope for a committed relationship) were investigated along with emotional reactions as the outcome variables. Through the use of cluster analysis, four distinct clusters were identified: Happy Hopeful, Content Realist, Used and Confused, and Disappointed and Disengaged. The majority (62 %) of the sample reported mostly positive reactions to hooking up and fell within the Happy Hopeful or Content Realist clusters. Protective factors in these two clusters included hope for a committed relationship, having realistic expectations, and healthy psychological adjustment. The Used and Confused and Disappointed and Disengaged clusters reported the most negative hooking up reactions and consisted of 38 % of the overall sample. These two groups reported increased depression and loneliness symptoms and lower levels of social adjustment as compared to those clusters with more positive reactions.