Cerebrospinal fluid cytotoxicity does not affect survival in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

OBJECTIVES: Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from some patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) has been demonstrated to significantly reduce the neuronal viability of primary cell cultures of motor neurons. We aimed to study the potential clinical consequences associated with the cytotoxicity of CSF in a cohort of patients with ALS. METHODS: We collected CSF from thirty-one patients with ALS. We analysed cytotoxicity by incubating it into the primary cultures of motor cortex neurons. Neural viability was quantified after 24 hours using the colorimetric MTT reduction assay. All patients were followed up from the moment of diagnosis to death, and a complete evaluation during disease progression and survival was performed, including gastrostomy and respiratory assistance. RESULTS: Twenty-one patients (67.7%) presented a cytotoxic CSF. There were no significant differences between patients with and without cytotoxicity regarding mean time from symptom onset to the diagnosis, from the diagnosis to death, from the diagnosis to respiratory assistance with BIPAP, from diagnosis to gastrostomy and from the onset of symptoms to death. In Cox regression analysis, bulbar onset, but not cytotoxicity, gender or age at onset, was associated with a lower risk of survival. CONCLUSIONS: Cerebrospinal fluid cytotoxicity was not associated with differential survival rates. This suggests that the presence of cytotoxicity in CSF, measured through neuronal viability in primary cultures of motor cortex neurons, could reflect different mechanisms of the disease, but it does not predict disease outcome.

The falling incidence of hematologic cancer after heart transplantation.

BACKGROUND: A number of changes in the management of heart transplantation (HT) patients have each tended to reduce the risk of post-HT hematologic cancer, but little information is available concerning the overall effect on incidence in the HT population. METHODS: Comparison of data from the Spanish Post-Heart-Transplantation Tumour Registry for the periods 1991-2000 and 2001-2010. RESULTS: The incidence among patients who underwent HT in the latter period was about half that observed in the former, with a particularly marked improvement in regard to incidence more than five yr post-HT. CONCLUSIONS: Changes in HT patient management have jointly reduced the risk of hematologic cancer in the Spanish HT population. Long-term risk appears to have benefited more than short-term risk.

Cellular changes in motor neuron cell culture produced by cytotoxic cerebrospinal fluid from patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

INTRODUCTION: The neurotoxic effects of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) have been reported by various authors who have attributed this neurotoxicity to the glutamate in CSF-ALS. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Cultures of rat embryonic cortical neurons were exposed to CSF from ALS patients during an incubation period of 24 hours. Optical microscopy was used to compare cellular changes to those elicited by exposure to 100µm glutamate, and confocal microscopy was used to evaluate immunohistochemistry for caspase-3, TNFα, and peripherin. RESULTS: In the culture exposed to CSF-ALS, we observed cells with nuclear fragmentation and scarce or null structural modifications to the cytoplasmic organelles or to plasma membrane maintenance. This did not occur in the culture exposed to glutamate. The culture exposed to CSF-ALS also demonstrated increases in caspase-3, TNFα, and in peripherin co-locating with caspase-3, but not with TNFα, suggesting that TNFα may play an early role in the process of apoptosis. CONCLUSIONS: CFS-ALS cytotoxicity is not related to glutamate. It initially affects the nucleus without altering the cytoplasmic membrane. It causes cytoplasmic apoptosis that involves an increase in caspase-3 co-located with peripherin, which is also overexpressed.

[Medical recommendations from primary care on physical exercise in the postpartum]. / Recomendaciones médicas desde atención primaria sobre ejercicio físico en el posparto.

There is evidence that demonstrates the benefits of practicing physical activity/exercise for the mother after childbirth. However, this postpartum period (PP) is often a missed opportunity in a lifetime for women to start or resume physical exercise and get the great benefits that it can bring them. The objective of this article was to analyze the benefits of physical exercise during PP; the prescription of physical exercise; recommendations on when to resume your practice; barriers and facilitators; physical exercise during breastfeeding; as well as its role in the most frequent illnesses and discomforts in this period, always keeping in mind that the work of the primary care doctor is essential to motivate and encourage women to perform physical exercise in the PP.

GDF15 as a potential biomarker to distinguish fibrotic from non-fibrotic hypersensitivity pneumonitis.

Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis (HP) is an immune-mediated interstitial lung disease (ILD) characterized by fibrotic HP (fHP) or non-fibrotic HP (non-fHP). Fibrosis is associated with poor prognosis, emphasizing the need for biomarkers to distinguish fHP from non-fHP. This study aimed to determine the plasma levels of GDF15 in HP patients and assess its association with lung function and phenotype classification. GDF15 levels were quantified by ELISA in HP (n = 64), idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (n = 54), and healthy control (n = 128) groups. Clinical, demographic, and functional data were obtained from medical records. High-resolution chest CT scans were used to classify HP patients into fHP and non-fHP groups. In addition, receiver operating characteristic analysis was performed to determine the cut-off point, sensitivity, and specificity. Our results revealed significantly elevated GDF15 levels in fHP compared to non-fHP (2539 ± 821 pg/ml versus 1783 ± 801 pg/ml; p = 0.009). The estimated cut-off point for plasma GDF15 levels to distinguish fHP from non-fHP was 2193.4 pg/ml (AUC 0.75). These findings suggest that GDF15 may serve as a valuable biomarker for differentiating between fHP and non-fHP, potentially indicating its involvement in lung fibrosis development in HP.

Ultrasound diagnosis of Terson syndrome as an indicator of extreme severity in neurocritical care patients.

INTRODUCTION: Terson syndrome (TS) is defined as any intraocular haemorrhage identified in patients with acute intracranial pathology. TS appears to be associated with clinical severity in patients with subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH), but the association is yet to be defined in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH). This study aimed to evaluate the diagnostic performance of ocular ultrasound (OU) and its usefulness in clinical practice. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We performed an observational, prospective, single-centre study of neurocritical care patients. We analysed cases and controls, defined according to indirect ophthalmoscopy (IO) and OU findings. We determined the diagnostic characteristics of OU. A multivariate analysis was performed to identify clinically relevant associations. RESULTS: The sample included 91 patients diagnosed with ICH (41.76%), SAH (29.67%), and TBI (28.57%). TS was identified by OU in 8 patients (8.79%) and by IO in 24 (24.37%). The adjusted mortality rate in patients with TS showed an odds ratio (OR) of 4.15 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.52-11.33). All patients with TS detected by OU presented Glasgow Coma Scale scores < 9, with an elevated risk of needing decompressive craniectomy (OR: 9.84; 95% CI, 1.64-59). OU presented an overall sensitivity of 30.43%, specificity of 98.53%, and diagnostic accuracy of 81.32%. For the detection of vitreous haemorrhage, sensitivity and specificity were 87.5% and 98.5%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: OU diagnosis of TS identifies extremely critical patients, who may require the highest level of care; TS is an independent risk factor for in-hospital mortality.

Functionality of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells from tonsillar tissue.

For many years, tonsillectomy has been used routinely in children to treat chronic or recurrent acute tonsillitis. Palatine tonsils are secondary lymphoid organs and the major barrier protecting the digestive and respiratory tracts from potential invasive microorganisms. They have been used as sources of lymphoid tissue; however, despite the hundreds of papers published on tonsillectomy, no studies addressing the functionality of the CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells from chronically infected tonsils have yet been published. The aim of this study was to analyse the functionality of the CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells with respect to tonsillar tissue. We used an affordable approach to measure the frequency of antigen-specific CD4(+) T cells, the direct ex-vivo cytotoxicity of CD8(+) T cells, memory T cell phenotype, cytokine profile and DC phenotype. Our results demonstrate that CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells from tonsillar tissue are totally functional, as shown by their ability to produce cytokines, to degranulate and to differentiate into effector-memory T cells.

[SOD1-N196 mutation in a family with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]. / Mutación SOD1-N19S en una familia de esclerosis lateral amiotrófica.

INTRODUCTION: N19S mutation is produced by substitution in the 139 position of SOD1 and was described by Mayeux in a patient with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). He suggested that it did not have a causal effect as it was found in asymptomatic and sporadic cases. Other authors in later articles did not agree. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We describe a family with 4 members with ALS patients and attempt to find the carrier of the N19S mutation of the propositus. Molecular studies were performed on 15 members of the family of a different order. RESULTS: The ALS cases were found in the maternal line of the propositus. The presence of the mutation was detected in 3 people, the other two were asymptomatic. One of patients with ALS in the family, who died previously, did not have the mutation. Two of the sons of this case and another of the other case did not show it. On the other hand, N19S mutation was only present in paternal branch of the propositus, where there were no cases. CONCLUSION: The described family supports the hypothesis by Mayeux and against that mutation N19S has pathological consequences, since mutation is only in the family line where there are no cases with ALS. In consequence, although the described case is included as a familiar form, it cannot be attributed to the mutation, and its relationship with N19S should be considered as casual.

[Physical exercise and pregnancy. Evidence based medicine (EBM)]. / Ejercicio físico y embarazo. Medicina basada en la evidencia (MBE).

Physical activity during pregnancy promotes maternal, fetal and neonatal health. The health benefits of prenatal physical activity include a reduced risk of excess gestational weight gain, gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, labor complications, preterm labor, newborn complications, and postpartum depression. The main guidelines for physical activity/exercise during pregnancy recommend that all pregnant women without medical or obstetric contraindications, remain physically active during the gestation, in order to achieve benefits for their health and at the same time reduce the possibility of complications during pregnancy. We analyze in this article what evidence based medicine (EBM) indicates regarding physical exercise and pregnancy. To do this, we draw on the different existing Cochrane reviews, as well as on the main Clinical practice guidelines and Consensus documents.

Traumatic brain injury in the new millennium: new population and new management.

INTRODUCTION: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the leading causes of death and disability globally. We present a study describing epidemiological changes in severe TBI and the impact these changes have had on management and analysing alternatives that may improve outcomes in this new population. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We performed a retrospective, descriptive, cross-sectional analysis of patients presenting severe TBI at our hospital in the period of 1992-1996 and 2009-2013. We analysed demographic data, including age, sex, mortality, aetiology, anticoagulation, treatment, and functional outcome. RESULTS: We reviewed data from 220 patients. In the second cohort, there were 40% fewer patients, mean age was 12 years older, patients were more frequently receiving anticoagulation therapy, and the percentage of interventions was halved. Aetiology varied, with traffic accidents being the main cause in the first group, and accidental falls and being hit by cars in the second group. There were no intergroup differences for mortality or functional outcomes. CONCLUSION: The age of patients admitted due to severe TBI has increased. As a result of this, the main cause of severe TBI in our population is accidental falls in elderly, anticoagulated patients. Despite the low-energy nature of trauma, patients in the second cohort presented a poorer baseline status, and were less frequently eligible for surgery, with no improvement in mortality or functional outcomes.

Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in autoimmune rheumatic diseases: a clinical consensus document by the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging.

Autoimmune rheumatic diseases (ARDs) involve multiple organs including the heart and vasculature. Despite novel treatments, patients with ARDs still experience a reduced life expectancy, partly caused by the higher prevalence of cardiovascular disease (CVD). This includes CV inflammation, rhythm disturbances, perfusion abnormalities (ischaemia/infarction), dysregulation of vasoreactivity, myocardial fibrosis, coagulation abnormalities, pulmonary hypertension, valvular disease, and side-effects of immunomodulatory therapy. Currently, the evaluation of CV involvement in patients with ARDs is based on the assessment of cardiac symptoms, coupled with electrocardiography, blood testing, and echocardiography. However, CVD may not become overt until late in the course of the disease, thus potentially limiting the therapeutic window for intervention. More recently, cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) has allowed for the early identification of pathophysiologic structural/functional alterations that take place before the onset of clinically overt CVD. CMR allows for detailed evaluation of biventricular function together with tissue characterization of vessels/myocardium in the same examination, yielding a reliable assessment of disease activity that might not be mirrored by blood biomarkers and other imaging modalities. Therefore, CMR provides diagnostic information that enables timely clinical decision-making and facilitates the tailoring of treatment to individual patients. Here we review the role of CMR in the early and accurate diagnosis of CVD in patients with ARDs compared with other non-invasive imaging modalities. Furthermore, we present a consensus-based decision algorithm for when a CMR study could be considered in patients with ARDs, together with a standardized study protocol. Lastly, we discuss the clinical implications of findings from a CMR examination.

Lung cancer after heart transplantation: results from a large multicenter registry.

In this study we analyzed Spanish Post-Heart-Transplant Tumour Registry data for adult heart transplantation (HT) patients since 1984. Median post-HT follow-up of 4357 patients was 6.7 years. Lung cancer (mainly squamous cell or adenocarcinoma) was diagnosed in 102 (14.0% of patients developing cancers) a mean 6.4 years post-HT. Incidence increased with age at HT from 149 per 100 000 person-years among under-45s to 542 among over-64s; was 4.6 times greater among men than women; and was four times greater among pre-HT smokers (2169 patients) than nonsmokers (2188). The incidence rates in age-at-diagnosis groups with more than one case were significantly greater than GLOBOCAN 2002 estimates for the general Spanish population, and comparison with published data on smoking and lung cancer in the general population suggests that this increase was not due to a greater prevalence of smokers or former smokers among HT patients. Curative surgery, performed in 21 of the 28 operable cases, increased Kaplan-Meier 2-year survival to 70% versus 16% among inoperable patients.

Ultrasound diagnosis of Terson syndrome as an indicator of extreme severity in neurocritical care patients. / El síndrome de Terson diagnosticado por ecografía como indicador de extrema gravedad en pacientes neurocríticos.

INTRODUCTION: Terson syndrome (TS) is defined as any intraocular haemorrhage identified in patients with acute intracranial pathology. TS appears to be associated with clinical severity in patients with subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH), but the association is yet to be defined in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH). This study aimed to evaluate the diagnostic performance of ocular ultrasound (OU) and its usefulness in clinical practice. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We performed an observational, prospective, single-centre study of neurocritical care patients. We analysed cases and controls, defined according to indirect ophthalmoscopy (IO) and OU findings. We determined the diagnostic characteristics of OU. A multivariate analysis was performed to identify clinically relevant associations. RESULTS: The sample included 91 patients diagnosed with ICH (41.76%), SAH (29.67%), and TBI (28.57%). TS was identified by OU in 8 patients (8.79%) and by IO in 24 (24.37%). The adjusted mortality rate in patients with TS showed an odds ratio (OR) of 4.15 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.52-11.33). All patients with TS detected by OU presented Glasgow Coma Scale scores < 9, with an elevated risk of needing decompressive craniectomy (OR: 9.84; 95% CI, 1.64-59). OU presented an overall sensitivity of 30.43%, specificity of 98.53%, and diagnostic accuracy of 81.32%. For the detection of vitreous haemorrhage, sensitivity and specificity were 87.5% and 98.5%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: OU diagnosis of TS identifies extremely critical patients, who may require the highest level of care; TS is an independent risk factor for in-hospital mortality.

Traumatic brain injury in the new millennium: A new population and new management. / El traumatismo craneoencefálico severo en el nuevo milenio. Nueva población y nuevo manejo.

INTRODUCTION: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the leading causes of death and disability globally. We present a study describing epidemiological changes in severe TBI and the impact these changes have had on management and analysing alternatives that may improve outcomes in this new population. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We performed a retrospective, descriptive, cross-sectional analysis of patients presenting severe TBI at our hospital in the period of 1992-1996 and 2009-2013. We analysed demographic data, including age, sex, mortality, aetiology, anticoagulation, treatment, and functional outcome. RESULTS: We reviewed data from 220 patients. In the second cohort, there were 40% fewer patients, mean age was 12years older, patients were more frequently receiving anticoagulation therapy, and the percentage of interventions was halved. Aetiology varied, with traffic accidents being the main cause in the first group, and accidental falls and being hit by cars in the second group. There were no intergroup differences for mortality or functional outcomes. CONCLUSION: The age of patients admitted due to severe TBI has increased. As a result of this, the main cause of severe TBI in our population is accidental falls in elderly, anticoagulated patients. Despite the low-energy nature of trauma, patients in the second cohort presented a poorer baseline status, and were less frequently eligible for surgery, with no improvement in mortality or functional outcomes.

Improving the cadmium-induced centriacinar emphysema model in rats by concomitant anti-oxidant treatment.

1. The aim of the present study was to perform an evolutionary analysis of the morphometrical, biochemical and functional parameters of centriacinar emphysema induced by cadmium chloride (CdCl2) in rats and to determine the effects of concomitant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) administration. 2. Male Wistar rats were instilled orotracheally with either CdCl2 (n = 24) or saline (n = 24). One group of rats, consisting of both CdCl2- and saline-treated rats, was fed a normal diet (n = 24), whereas the other group received NAC (n = 24). 3. Changes in inspiratory capacity (IC), lung compliance (CL), expiratory flow at 75% (F75), forced vital capacity (FVC) and hydroxyproline content were assessed 2, 8, 21 and 45 days after instillation. Polymorphonuclear cells were evaluated 2 and 8 days after instillation and the mean linear intercept (Lm) was determined at 21 and 45 days. 4. Over time, CdCl2 instillation causes several changes that are bound up with centriacinar emphysema. The concomitant administration of NAC to CdCl2-treated rats partially reversed Lm at 21 days compared with CdCl2 alone (115 +/- 2 vs 127 +/- 2, respectively; P < 0.05). However, 45 days after instillation, NAC improved lung function in CdCl2-treated rats compared with that in the saline-treated control group (IC 14.64 vs 15.25, respectively (P = 0.054); FVC 16.94 vs 16.28, respectively (P = 0.052), F75 31.41 vs 32.48, respectively (P = 0.062)). In addition, 45 days after instillation, NAC reduced lung collagen content in both the saline-treated control (100 vs 81% alone and in the presence of NAC, respectively) and CdCL2-treated groups (213 vs 161% alone and in the presence of NAC, respectively). In addition, although the results were not significant, NAC tended to reduce Lm and enhance CL in NAC + CdCl2-treated rats. 5. In conclusion, NAC partially improved emphysematous changes and reduced collagen deposition, which diminished the CdCl2-induced fibrotic component of centriacinar emphysema.

Histological changes in the rat brain and spinal cord following prolonged intracerebroventricular infusion of cerebrospinal fluid from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patients are similar to those caused by the disease. / La infusión intracerebroventricular prolongada de líquido cefalorraquídeo procedente de pacientes con esclerosis lateral amiotrófica provoca cambios histológicos en el cerebro y la médula espinal de la rata similares a los hallados en la enfermedad.

INTRODUCTION: Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) patients induces cytotoxic effects in in vitro cultured motor neurons. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We selected CSF with previously reported cytotoxic effects from 32 ALS patients. Twenty-eight adult male rats were intracerebroventricularly implanted with osmotic mini-pumps and divided into 3 groups: 9 rats injected with CSF from non-ALS patients, 15 rats injected with cytotoxic ALS-CSF, and 4 rats injected with a physiological saline solution. CSF was intracerebroventricularly and continuously infused for periods of 20 or 43days after implantation. We conducted clinical assessments and electromyographic examinations, and histological analyses were conducted in rats euthanised 20, 45, and 82days after surgery. RESULTS: Immunohistochemical studies revealed tissue damage with similar characteristics to those found in the sporadic forms of ALS, such as overexpression of cystatinC, transferrin, and TDP-43 protein in the cytoplasm. The earliest changes observed seemed to play a protective role due to the overexpression of peripherin, AKTpan, AKTphospho, and metallothioneins; this expression had diminished by the time we analysed rats euthanised on day 82, when an increase in apoptosis was observed. The first cellular changes identified were activated microglia followed by astrogliosis and overexpression of GFAP and S100B proteins. CONCLUSION: Our data suggest that ALS could spread through CSF and that intracerebroventricular administration of cytotoxic ALS-CSF provokes changes similar to those found in sporadic forms of the disease.

[Adult-onset subacute sclerosing panencephalitis: clinicopathological findings]. / Panencefalitis esclerosante subaguda de comienzo en la edad adulta: hallazgos clinicopatológicos.

INTRODUCTION: Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis is a disease affecting the central nervous system that is produced by persistent infection by a defective measles virus. This disease is very infrequent and its incidence has gone down even further in western countries since the introduction of generalised measles vaccinations. Onset of the disease is usually during infancy or adolescence. Reports of cases beginning during adulthood are scarce. CASE REPORT: We describe the case of a 30-year-old female with a slowly progressive subacute clinical picture consisting in behavioural disorders, with defrontalisation, cortico-subcortical cognitive impairment, long tract signs and visual disorders, which led the patient into a vegetative state. Four years after the onset of symptoms the patient died. The different electroencephalogram recordings performed did not show any periodic activity and magnetic resonance imaging of the head revealed cerebral atrophy with hyperintense lesions in T2 sequences in white matter. The histological study of the brain showed a chronic inflammatory infiltration with neuronal loss and demyelination, as well as intranuclear inclusions and neurofibrillary degeneration. CONCLUSIONS: The appearance of subacute sclerosing panencephalitis in adulthood is exceptional. Diagnosis requires a high degree of clinical suspicion, above all in the absence of typical symptoms, such as myoclonias or periodic complexes in EEG recordings.

Diversity of human papillomavirus in the anal canal of men: the HIM Study.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infections are associated with the development of anogenital lesions in men. There are no reports describing the distribution of non-α HPV types in the anal canal of a sexually diverse group of men. The HPV Infection in Men (HIM) Study is a multicentre study on the natural history of HPV infection in Brazil, Mexico, and the USA. At baseline, 12% of anal canal PCR HPV-positive specimens were not typed by the Roche Linear Array, and were considered to be unclassified. Our goals were to characterize HPVs among these unclassified specimens at baseline, and to assess associations with participant socio-demographic and behavioural characteristics. Unclassified HPVs were typed by sequencing of amplified PGMY09/11 products or cloning of PGMY/GP + nested amplicons followed by sequencing. Further analysis was conducted with FAP primers. Of men with unclassified HPV in the anal canal, most (89.1%) were men who have sex with women. Readable sequences were produced for 62.8% of unclassified specimens, of which 75.2% were characterized HPV types. Eighteen, 26 and three different α-HPV, ß-HPV and γ-HPV types were detected, respectively. α-HPVs were more commonly detected among young men (18-30 years) than among older men (45-70 years), whereas ß-HPVs were more frequent among mid-adult men (31-44 years). ß-HPVs were more common among heterosexual men (85.0%) than among non-heterosexual men. All ß-HPVs detected among non-heterosexual men were ß2-HPV types. The high prevalence of ß-HPV in the anal canal of men who do not report receptive anal sex is suggestive of other forms of transmission that do not involve penile-anal intercourse.

Molecular characterisation of 10 Dutch properdin type I deficient families: mutation analysis and X-inactivation studies.

Properdin type I deficiency is characterised by complete absence of extracellular properdin, a positive regulator of the alternative pathway of complement activation. Properdin deficiency is associated with increased susceptibility to severe meningococcal disease. We have identified the genetic defect in 10 Dutch families. Six different mutations and one sequence polymorphism in the properdin gene were found. All amino acid substitutions were limited to conserved amino acids in exons 7 and 8 in contrast to the premature stops that were found in other exons. The missense mutations may alter the protein conformation in such a way that properdin will not be secreted and therefore catabolised intracellularly. The decreased properdin levels found in some healthy females carrying one mutated properdin gene were studied for X-inactivation. Most carriers with extreme low or high properdin levels showed preferential X-inactivation for the normal or mutated X chromosome, respectively. We observed some exceptions, suggesting additional regulation of properdin excretion apart from X-inactivation.