Expanding the Repertoire of ceDAF-12 Ligands for Modulation of the Steroid Endocrine System in C. Elegans.

Steroid hormones are essential for the biological processes of eukaryotic organisms. The steroid endocrine system of C. elegans, which includes dafachronic acids (DA) and the nuclear receptor ceDAF-12, provides a simple model for exploring the role of steroid hormone signaling pathways in animals. In this study, we show for the first time the feasibility of designing synthetic steroids that can modulate different physiological processes, such as development, reproduction and ageing, in relation to ceDAF-12. Our results not only confirm the conclusions derived from genetic studies linking these processes but also provide new chemical tools to selectively manipulate them, as we found that different compounds produce different phenotypic results. The structures of these compounds are much more diverse than those of endogenous hormones and analogues previously described by other researchers, allowing further development of the chemical modulation of the steroid endocrine system in C. elegans and related nematodes.

Functions of the Hsp90-Binding FKBP Immunophilins.

The Hsp90 chaperone is known to interact with a diverse array of client proteins. However, in every case examined, Hsp90 is also accompanied by a single or several co-chaperone proteins. One class of co-chaperone contains a tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) domain that targets the co-chaperone to the C-terminal region of Hsp90. Within this class are Hsp90-binding peptidylprolyl isomerases, most of which belong to the FK506-binding protein (FKBP) family. Despite the common association of FKBP co-chaperones with Hsp90, it is abundantly clear that the client protein influences, and is often influenced by, the particular FKBP bound to Hsp90. Examples include Xap2 in aryl hydrocarbon receptor complexes and FKBP52 in steroid receptor complexes. In this chapter, we discuss the known functional roles played by FKBP co-chaperones and, where possible, relate distinctive functions to structural differences between FKBP members.

Mitochondrial-nuclear communication by FKBP51 shuttling.

The HSP90-binding immunophilin FKBP51 is a soluble protein that shows high homology and structural similarity with FKBP52. Both immunophilins are functionally divergent and often show antagonistic actions. They were first described in steroid receptor complexes, their exchange in the complex being the earliest known event in steroid receptor activation upon ligand binding. In addition to steroid-related events, several pleiotropic actions of FKBP51 have emerged during the last years, ranging from cell differentiation and apoptosis to metabolic and psychiatric disorders. On the other hand, mitochondria play vital cellular roles in maintaining energy homeostasis, responding to stress conditions, and affecting cell cycle regulation, calcium signaling, redox homeostasis, and so forth. This is achieved by proteins that are encoded in both the nuclear genome and mitochondrial genes. This implies active nuclear-mitochondrial communication to maintain cell homeostasis. Such communication involves factors that regulate nuclear and mitochondrial gene expression affecting the synthesis and recruitment of mitochondrial and nonmitochondrial proteins, and/or changes in the functional state of the mitochondria itself, which enable mitochondria to recover from stress. FKBP51 has emerged as a serious candidate to participate in these regulatory roles since it has been unexpectedly found in mitochondria showing antiapoptotic effects. Such localization involves the tetratricopeptide repeats domains of the immunophilin and not its intrinsic enzymatic activity of peptidylprolyl-isomerase. Importantly, FKBP51 abandons the mitochondria and accumulates in the nucleus upon cell differentiation or during the onset of stress. Nuclear FKBP51 enhances the enzymatic activity of telomerase. The mitochondrial-nuclear trafficking is reversible, and certain situations such as viral infections promote the opposite trafficking, that is, FKBP51 abandons the nucleus and accumulates in mitochondria. In this article, we review the latest findings related to the mitochondrial-nuclear communication mediated by FKBP51 and speculate about the possible implications of this phenomenon.

Cyclophilin A is a mitochondrial factor that forms complexes with p23 - correlative evidence for an anti-apoptotic action.

Cyclophilin A (CyPA, also known as PPIA) is an abundant and ubiquitously expressed protein belonging to the immunophilin family, which has intrinsic peptidyl-prolyl-(cis/trans)-isomerase enzymatic activity. CyPA mediates immunosuppressive action of the cyclic undecapeptide cyclosporine A and is also involved in multiple cellular processes, such as protein folding, intracellular trafficking, signal transduction and transcriptional regulation. CyPA is abundantly expressed in cancer cells, and, owing to its chaperone nature, its expression is induced upon the onset of stress. In this study, we demonstrated that a significant pool of this immunophilin is primarily an intramitochondrial factor that migrates to the nucleus when cells are stimulated with stressors. CyPA shows anti-apoptotic action per se and the capability of forming ternary complexes with cytochrome c and the small acidic co-chaperone p23, the latter interaction being independent of the usual association of p23 with the heat-shock protein of 90 kDa, Hsp90. These CyPA•p23 complexes enhance the anti-apoptotic response of the cell, suggesting that both proteins form a functional unit, the high level of expression of which plays a significant role in cell survival.

Nucleocytoplasmic shuttling of the glucocorticoid receptor is influenced by tetratricopeptide repeat-containing proteins.

It has been demonstrated that tetratricopeptide-repeat (TPR) domain proteins regulate the subcellular localization of glucocorticoid receptor (GR). This study analyses the influence of the TPR domain of high molecular weight immunophilins in the retrograde transport and nuclear retention of GR. Overexpression of the TPR peptide prevented efficient nuclear accumulation of the GR by disrupting the formation of complexes with the dynein-associated immunophilin FKBP52 (also known as FKBP4), the adaptor transporter importin-ß1 (KPNB1), the nuclear pore-associated glycoprotein Nup62 and nuclear matrix-associated structures. We also show that nuclear import of GR was impaired, whereas GR nuclear export was enhanced. Interestingly, the CRM1 (exportin-1) inhibitor leptomycin-B abolished the effects of TPR peptide overexpression, although the drug did not inhibit GR nuclear export itself. This indicates the existence of a TPR-domain-dependent mechanism for the export of nuclear proteins. The expression balance of those TPR domain proteins bound to the GR-Hsp90 complex may determine the subcellular localization and nucleocytoplasmic properties of the receptor, and thereby its pleiotropic biological properties in different tissues and cell types.

Regulation of FKBP51 and FKBP52 functions by post-translational modifications.

FKBP51 and FKBP52 are two iconic members of the family of peptidyl-prolyl-(cis/trans)-isomerases (EC: 5.2.1.8), which comprises proteins that catalyze the cis/trans isomerization of peptidyl-prolyl peptide bonds in unfolded and partially folded polypeptide chains and native state proteins. Originally, both proteins have been studied as molecular chaperones belonging to the steroid receptor heterocomplex, where they were first discovered. In addition to their expected role in receptor folding and chaperoning, FKBP51 and FKBP52 are also involved in many biological processes, such as signal transduction, transcriptional regulation, protein transport, cancer development, and cell differentiation, just to mention a few examples. Recent studies have revealed that both proteins are subject of post-translational modifications such as phosphorylation, SUMOlyation, and acetylation. In this work, we summarize recent advances in the study of these immunophilins portraying them as scaffolding proteins capable to organize protein heterocomplexes, describing some of their antagonistic properties in the physiology of the cell, and the putative regulation of their properties by those post-translational modifications.

Fe3 O4 nanoparticles mediated synthesis of novel spirooxindole-dihydropyrimidinone molecules as Hsp90 inhibitors.

Heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) is a validated molecular chaperone considered as the new key recipient for cancer intervention. The current study illustrates the synthesis of novel spirooxindole-dihydropyrimidinones (4a-j) by Fe3 O4 nanoparticles intervened synthesis and their Hsp90 ATPase inhibitory activity was investigated by the malachite green assay. All the compounds in the study demonstrated a moderate to potent ATPase inhibitory profile, with IC50 values ranging from 0.18 to 6.80 µM. Compounds 4j, 4h, 4f, and 4i exhibited maximum inhibitory potential with IC50 values of 0.18, 0.20, 0.35, and 0.55 µM, respectively. They were found to be better than the standard drug, geldanamycin (Hsp9 ATPase inhibition IC50 = 0.90 µM). Compounds 4h and 4j with IC50 values of 22.82 ± 0.532, 20.78 ± 0.234 and 21.32 ± 0.765, 28.43 ± 0.653 µM showed significantly greater potencies against the MCF-7 and HepG2 cell lines, respectively. Compound 4j showed good antioxidant activities in the DPPH test and H2 O2 assay (IC50 = 20.13.23 ± 0.32 and 23.27 ± 0.32 µg/mL) when compared with the standard ascorbic acid (IC50 = 19.16 ± 0.20 and 20.66 ± 1.09 µg/mL). A molecular docking study was performed to observe the binding efficiency and steric interactions of the lead moiety.

Gene expression regulation by heat-shock proteins: the cardinal roles of HSF1 and Hsp90.

The ability to permit gene expression is managed by a set of relatively well known regulatory mechanisms. Nonetheless, this property can also be acquired during a life span as a consequence of environmental stimuli. Interestingly, some acquired information can be passed to the next generation of individuals without modifying gene information, but instead by the manner in which cells read and process such information. Molecular chaperones are classically related to the proper preservation of protein folding and anti-aggregation properties, but one of them, heat-shock protein 90 (Hsp90), is a refined sensor of protein function facilitating the biological activity of properly folded client proteins that already have a preserved tertiary structure. Interestingly, Hsp90 can also function as a critical switch able to regulate biological responses due to its association with key client proteins such as histone deacetylases or DNA methylases. Thus, a growing amount of evidence has connected the action of Hsp90 to post-translational modifications of soluble nuclear factors, DNA, and histones, which epigenetically affect gene expression upon the onset of an unfriendly environment. This response is commanded by the activation of the transcription factor heat-shock factor 1 (HSF1). Even though numerous stresses of diverse nature are known to trigger the stress response by activation of HSF1, it is still unknown whether there are different types of molecular sensors for each type of stimulus. In the present review, we will discuss various aspects of the regulatory action of HSF1 and Hsp90 on transcriptional regulation, and how this regulation may affect genetic assimilation mechanisms and the health of individuals.

Synthetic stigmastanes with dual antiherpetic and immunomodulating activities inhibit ERK and Akt signaling pathways without binding to glucocorticoid receptors.

BACKGROUND: We have previously shown that some synthetic hydroxylated stigmastanes derived from plant sterols inhibit in vitro HSV-1 replication in ocular cell lines and decrease cytokine production in stimulated macrophages, suggesting that these steroids might combine antiviral and immunomodulating properties. In this paper we report the synthesis of some analogs fluorinated at C-6 in order to study the effect of this modification on bioactivity. METHODS: The following methods were used: organic synthesis of fluorinated analogs, cytotoxicity determination with MTT assays, cytokine production quantification with ELISAs, glucocorticoid activity determination by displacement assays, immunofluorescence and transcriptional activity assays, studies of the activation of signaling pathways by Western blot, antiviral activity evaluation through virus yield reduction assays. RESULTS: We report the chemical synthesis of new fluorinated stigmastanes and show that this family of steroidal compounds exerts its immunomodulating activity by inhibiting ERK and Akt signaling pathways, but do not act as glucocorticoids. We also demonstrate that fluorination enhances the antiviral activity. CONCLUSIONS: Fluorination on C-6 did not enhance the anti-inflammatory effect, however, an increase in the in vitro antiviral activity was observed. Thus, our results suggest that it is possible to introduce chemical modifications on the parent steroids in order to selectively modulate one of the effects. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: This family of steroids could allow the development of an alternative treatment for ocular immunopathologies triggered by HSV-1, without the undesirable side effects of the currently used drugs.

Biological relevance of Hsp90-binding immunophilins in cancer development and treatment.

Immunophilins are a family of intracellular receptors for immunosuppressive drugs. Those immunophilins that are related to immunosuppression are the smallest proteins of the family, i.e., FKBP12 and CyPA, whereas the other members of the family have higher molecular weight because the show additional domains to the drug-binding site. Among these extra domains, the TPR-domain is perhaps the most relevant because it permits the interaction of high molecular weight immunophilins with the 90-kDa heat-shock protein, Hsp90. This essential molecular chaperone regulates the biological function of several protein-kinases, oncogenes, protein phosphatases, transcription factors and cofactors . Hsp90-binding immunophilins where first characterized due to their association with steroid receptors. They regulate the cytoplasmic transport and the subcellular localization of these and other Hsp90 client proteins, as well as transcriptional activity, cell proliferation, cell differentiation and apoptosis. Hsp90-binding immunophilins are frequently overexpressed in several types of cancers and play a key role in cell survival. In this article we analyze the most important biological actions of the best characterized Hsp90-binding immunophilins in both steroid receptor function and cancer development and discuss the potential use of these immunophilins for therapeutic purposes as potential targets of specific small molecules.

Functions of the Hsp90-binding FKBP immunophilins.

Hsp90 functionally interacts with a broad array of client proteins, but in every case examined Hsp90 is accompanied by one or more co-chaperones. One class of co-chaperone contains a tetratricopeptide repeat domain that targets the co-chaperone to the C-terminal region of Hsp90. Within this class are Hsp90-binding peptidylprolyl isomerases, most of which belong to the FK506-binding protein (FKBP) family. Despite the common association of FKBP co-chaperones with Hsp90, it is now clear that the client protein influences, and is influenced by, the particular FKBP bound to Hsp90. Examples include Xap2 in aryl hydrocarbon receptor complexes and FKBP52 in steroid receptor complexes. In this chapter, we discuss the known functional roles played by FKBP co-chaperones and, where possible, relate distinctive functions to structural differences between FKBP members.

NF-κB transcriptional activity is modulated by FK506-binding proteins FKBP51 and FKBP52: a role for peptidyl-prolyl isomerase activity.

Hsp90 binding immunophilins FKBP51 and FKBP52 modulate steroid receptor trafficking and hormone-dependent biological responses. With the purpose to expand this model to other nuclear factors that are also subject to nuclear-cytoplasmic shuttling, we analyzed whether these immunophilins modulate NF-κB signaling. It is demonstrated that FKBP51 impairs both the nuclear translocation rate of NF-κB and its transcriptional activity. The inhibitory action of FKBP51 requires neither the peptidylprolyl-isomerase activity of the immunophilin nor its association with Hsp90. The TPR domain of FKBP51 is essential. On the other hand, FKBP52 favors the nuclear retention time of RelA, its association to a DNA consensus binding sequence, and NF-κB transcriptional activity, the latter effect being strongly dependent on the peptidylprolyl-isomerase activity and also on the TPR domain of FKBP52, but its interaction with Hsp90 is not required. In unstimulated cells, FKBP51 forms endogenous complexes with cytoplasmic RelA. Upon cell stimulation with phorbol ester, the NF-κB soluble complex exchanges FKBP51 for FKBP52, and the NF-κB biological effect is triggered. Importantly, FKBP52 is functionally recruited to the promoter region of NF-κB target genes, whereas FKBP51 is released. Competition assays demonstrated that both immunophilins antagonize one another, and binding assays with purified proteins suggest that the association of RelA and immunophilins could be direct. These observations suggest that the biological action of NF-κB in different cell types could be positively regulated by a high FKBP52/FKBP51 expression ratio by favoring NF-κB nuclear retention, recruitment to the promoter regions of target genes, and transcriptional activity.

Regulatory role of the 90-kDa-heat-shock protein (Hsp90) and associated factors on gene expression.

The term molecular chaperone was first used to describe the ability of nucleoplasmin to prevent the aggregation of histones with DNA during the assembly of nucleosomes. Subsequently, the name was extended to proteins that mediate the post-translational assembly of oligomeric complexes protecting them from denaturation and/or aggregation. Hsp90 is a 90-kDa molecular chaperone that represents the major soluble protein of the cell. In contrast to most conventional chaperones, Hsp90 functions as a refined sensor of protein function and its principal role in the cell is to facilitate biological activity to properly folded client proteins that already have a preserved tertiary structure. Consequently, Hsp90 is related to basic cell functions such as cytoplasmic transport of soluble proteins, translocation of client proteins to organelles, and regulation of the biological activity of key signaling factors such as protein kinases, ubiquitin ligases, steroid receptors, cell cycle regulators, and transcription factors. A growing amount of evidence links the protective action of this molecular chaperone to mechanisms related to posttranslational modifications of soluble nuclear factors as well as histones. In this article, we discuss some aspects of the regulatory action of Hsp90 on transcriptional regulation and how this effect could have impacted genetic assimilation mechanism in some organisms.

Dynamic mitochondrial-nuclear redistribution of the immunophilin FKBP51 is regulated by the PKA signaling pathway to control gene expression during adipocyte differentiation.

Glucocorticoids play an important role in adipogenesis through the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) that forms a heterocomplex with Hsp90•Hsp70 and one high molecular weight immunophilin, either FKBP51 or FKBP52. When 3T3-L1 preadipocytes are induced to differentiate, FKBP51 expression progressively increases, whereas FKBP52 decreases, and Hsp90, Hsp70, p23 and Cyp40 remain unchanged. Interestingly, FKBP51 rapidly translocates from mitochondria to the nucleus where it is retained upon its interaction with chromatin and the nuclear matrix. FKBP51 nuclear localization is transient, and after 48 hours it cycles back to mitochondria. Importantly, this dynamic FKBP51 mitochondrial-nuclear shuttling depends on PKA signaling, because its inhibition by PKI or knockdown of PKA-cα by siRNA, prevented FKBP51 nuclear translocation induced by IBMX. In addition, the electrophoretic pattern of migration of FKBP51 is altered by treatment of cells with PKI or knockdown of PKA-cα, suggesting that FKBP51 is a PKA substrate. In preadipocytes, FKBP51 colocalizes with PKA-cα in mitochondria. When adipogenesis is triggered, PKA-cα also moves to the nucleus colocalizing with FKBP51 mainly in the nuclear lamina. Moreover, FKBP51 and GR interaction increases when preadipocytes are induced to differentiate. GR transcriptional capacity is reduced when cells are incubated in the presence of IBMX, forskolin or dibutyryl-cAMP, compounds that induced FKBP51 nuclear translocation, but not by a specific activator of EPAC. FKBP51 knockdown facilitates adipogenesis, whereas ectopic expression of FKBP51 blocks adipogenesis. These findings indicate that the dynamic mitochondrial-nuclear shuttling of FKBP51 regulated by PKA may be key in fine-tuning the transcriptional control of GR target genes required for the acquisition of adipocyte phenotype.

2,4-dihydroxy benzaldehyde derived Schiff bases as small molecule Hsp90 inhibitors: rational identification of a new anticancer lead.

Hsp90 is a molecular chaperone that heals diverse array of biomolecules ranging from multiple oncogenic proteins to the ones responsible for development of resistance to chemotherapeutic agents. Moreover they are over-expressed in cancer cells as a complex with co-chaperones and under-expressed in normal cells as a single free entity. Hence inhibitors of Hsp90 will be more effective and selective in destroying cancer cells with minimum chances of acquiring resistance to them. In continuation of our goal to rationally develop effective small molecule azomethines against Hsp90, we designed few more compounds belonging to the class of 2,4-dihydroxy benzaldehyde derived imines (1-13) with our validated docking protocol. The molecules exhibiting good docking score were synthesized and their structures were confirmed by IR, (1)H NMR and mass spectral analysis. Subsequently, they were evaluated for their potential to suppress Hsp90 ATPase activity by Malachite green assay. The antiproliferative effect of the molecules were examined on PC3 prostate cancer cell lines by adopting 3-(4,5-dimethythiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay methodology. Finally, schiff base 13 emerged as the lead molecule for future design and development of Hsp90 inhibitors as anticancer agents.

Roles of GR Isoforms and Hsp90-binding Immunophilins in the Modulation of Glucocorticoid Biological Responses.

Glucocorticoid steroids play cardinal roles during the life span of an individual, modulating almost all aspects of the physiology, including the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids, as well as the immune response, neurological biology, stress adaptation, apoptosis, cell division, cell fate, inflammatory responses, etc. Glucocorticoids exert their biological effects by activation of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), a bona fide ligand-activated transcription factor belonging to the nuclear receptor superfamily. The GR is expressed in virtually all cells of the human body showing isoformic versions and also transcription variants. GR forms oligomeric heterocomplexes that include the 90-kDa heat-shock protein (Hsp90) as an essential hub of the chaperone oligomer. The nature of chaperones associated with this heterocomplex is responsible for the modulation of the subcellular localization of the GR and its biological actions in a given tissue or cell type. In this sense, the discovery that immunophilins containing tetratricopeptide repeats (TPR) domains are responsible for the GR cytoplasmic transport mechanism and the nuclear retention half-time of the receptor opened new trends in our understanding of its complex mechanism of action. Because the properties of GR ligands influence these protein-protein interactions, specific steroid•receptor complexes may confer the GR different features providing new therapeutic opportunities to manage the disease. In this article, we analyze multiple aspects of the GR mechanism of action, some properties of the GR isoforms, and the latest findings revealing the roles of Hsp90-binding immunophilins to manage the glucocorticoid biological response.

The transportosome system as a model for the retrotransport of soluble proteins.

The classic model of action of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) sustains that its associated heat-shock protein of 90-kDa (HSP90) favours the cytoplasmic retention of the unliganded GR, whereas the binding of steroid triggers the dissociation of HSP90 allowing the passive nuclear accumulation of GR. In recent years, it was described a molecular machinery called transportosome that is responsible for the active retrograde transport of GR. The transportosome heterocomplex includes a dimer of HSP90, the stabilizer co-chaperone p23, and FKBP52 (FK506-binding protein of 52-kDa), an immunophilin that binds dynein/dynactin motor proteins. The model shows that upon steroid binding, FKBP52 is recruited to the GR allowing its active retrograde transport on cytoskeletal tracks. Then, the entire GR heterocomplex translocates through the nuclear pore complex. The HSP90-based heterocomplex is released in the nucleoplasm followed by receptor dimerization. Subsequent findings demonstrated that the transportosome is also responsible for the retrotransport of other soluble proteins. Importantly, the disruption of this molecular oligomer leads to several diseases. In this article, we discuss the relevance of this transport machinery in health and disease.

The 90-kDa heat-shock protein (Hsp90)-binding immunophilin FKBP51 is a mitochondrial protein that translocates to the nucleus to protect cells against oxidative stress.

Confocal microscopy images revealed that the tetratricopeptide repeat motif (TPR) domain immunophilin FKBP51 shows colocalization with the specific mitochondrial marker MitoTracker. Signal specificity was tested with different antibodies and by FKBP51 knockdown. This unexpected subcellular localization of FKBP51 was confirmed by colocalization studies with other mitochondrial proteins, biochemical fractionation, and electron microscopy imaging. Interestingly, FKBP51 forms complexes in mitochondria with the glucocorticoid receptor and the Hsp90/Hsp70-based chaperone heterocomplex. Although Hsp90 inhibitors favor FKBP51 translocation from mitochondria to the nucleus in a reversible manner, TPR domain-deficient mutants of FKBP51 are constitutively nuclear and fully excluded from mitochondria, suggesting that a functional TPR domain is required for its mitochondrial localization. FKBP51 overexpression protects cells against oxidative stress, whereas FKBP51 knockdown makes them more sensitive to injury. In summary, this is the first demonstration that FKBP51 is a major mitochondrial factor that undergoes nuclear-mitochondrial shuttling, an observation that may be related to antiapoptotic mechanisms triggered during the stress response.

Regulation of the glucocorticoid response to stress-related disorders by the Hsp90-binding immunophilin FKBP51.

Immunophilin is the collective name given to a family of proteins that bind immunosuppressive drugs: Some immunophilins are Hsp90-binding cochaperones that affect steroid receptor function. Mood and anxiety disorders are stress-related diseases characterized by an impaired function of the mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptors, two of the major regulatory elements of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. Genetic variations of the FK506-binding protein of 51-kDa, FKBP51, one of the immunophilins bound to those steroid receptor complexes, were associated with the effectiveness of treatments against depression and with a major risk-factor for the development of post-traumatic stress disorders. Interestingly, immunophilins show polymorphisms and some polymorphic isoforms of FKBP51 correlate with a greater impairment of steroid receptor functions. In this review, we discuss different aspects of the role of FKBP51 in such steroid receptor function and the impact of genetic variants of the immunophilin on the dysregulation of the stress response.