Temporal analyses reveal a pivotal role for sense and antisense enhancer RNAs in coordinate immunoglobulin lambda locus activation.

Transcription enhancers are essential activators of V(D)J recombination that orchestrate non-coding transcription through complementary, unrearranged gene segments. How transcription is coordinately increased at spatially distinct promoters, however, remains poorly understood. Using the murine immunoglobulin lambda (Igλ) locus as model, we find that three enhancer-like elements in the 3' Igλ domain, Eλ3-1, HSCλ1 and HSE-1, show strikingly similar transcription factor binding dynamics and close spatial proximity, suggesting that they form an active enhancer hub. Temporal analyses show coordinate recruitment of complementary V and J gene segments to this hub, with comparable transcription factor binding dynamics to that at enhancers. We find further that E2A, p300, Mediator and Integrator bind to enhancers as early events, whereas YY1 recruitment and eRNA synthesis occur later, corresponding to transcription activation. Remarkably, the interplay between sense and antisense enhancer RNA is central to both active enhancer hub formation and coordinate Igλ transcription: Antisense Eλ3-1 eRNA represses Igλ activation whereas temporal analyses demonstrate that accumulating levels of sense eRNA boost YY1 recruitment to stabilise enhancer hub/promoter interactions and lead to coordinate transcription activation. These studies therefore demonstrate for the first time a critical role for threshold levels of sense versus antisense eRNA in locus activation.

A bovine antibody possessing an ultralong complementarity-determining region CDRH3 targets a highly conserved epitope in sarbecovirus spike proteins.

Broadly neutralizing antibodies have huge potential as novel antiviral therapeutics due to their ability to recognize highly conserved epitopes that are seldom mutated in viral variants. A subset of bovine antibodies possess an ultralong complementarity-determining region (CDR)H3 that is highly adept at recognizing such conserved epitopes, but their reactivity against Sarbecovirus Spike proteins has not been explored previously. Here, we use a SARS-naïve library to isolate a broadly reactive bovine CDRH3 that binds the receptor-binding domain of SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, and all SARS-CoV-2 variants. We show further that it neutralizes viruses pseudo-typed with SARS-CoV Spike, but this is not by competition with angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) binding. Instead, using differential hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry, we demonstrate that it recognizes the major site of vulnerability of Sarbecoviruses. This glycan-shielded cryptic epitope becomes available only transiently via interdomain movements of the Spike protein such that antibody binding triggers destruction of the prefusion complex. This proof of principle study demonstrates the power of in vitro expressed bovine antibodies with ultralong CDRH3s for the isolation of novel, broadly reactive tools to combat emerging pathogens and to identify key epitopes for vaccine development.

Lactic acid bacteria as mucosal delivery vehicles: a realistic therapeutic option.

Recombinant lactic acid bacteria (LAB), in particular lactococci and lactobacilli, have gained increasing interest as mucosal delivery vehicles in recent years. With the development of mucosal vaccines, studies on LAB expression systems have been mainly focused on the generation of genetic tools for antigen expression in different locations. Recombinant LAB show advantages in a wide range of aspects over other mucosal delivery systems and represent an attractive candidate for the delivery of therapeutic and prophylactic molecules in different applications. Here, we review the recent data on the use of recombinant LAB as mucosal delivery vectors and the associated health benefits, including the prevention and treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), autoimmune disorders, and infections by pathogenic microorganisms from mucosal surfaces. In addition, we discuss the use of LAB as vehicles to deliver DNA directly to eukaryotic cells. Researches from the last 5 years demonstrate that LAB as vectors for mucosal delivery of therapeutic molecules seem to be a realistic therapeutic option both in human and animal diseases.

Cellular microRNAs and picornaviral infections.

microRNAs (miRNAs) are a subtype of short, endogenous, and non-coding RNAs, which post-transcriptionally regulate gene expression. The miRNA-mediated gene silencing mechanism is involved in a wide spectrum of biological processes, such as cellular proliferation, differentiation, and immune responses. Picornaviridae is a large family of RNA viruses, which includes a number of causative agents of many human and animal diseases viz., poliovirus, foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), and coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3). Accumulated evidences have demonstrated that replication of picornaviruses can be regulated by miRNAs and picornaviral infections can alter the expression of cellular miRNAs. Herein, we outline the intricate interactions between miRNAs and picornaviral infections.

YY1 Binding to Regulatory Elements That Lack Enhancer Activity Promotes Locus Folding and Gene Activation.

Enhancers activate their cognate promoters over huge distances but how enhancer/promoter interactions become established is not completely understood. There is strong evidence that cohesin-mediated loop extrusion is involved but this does not appear to be a universal mechanism. Here, we identify an element within the mouse immunoglobulin lambda (Igλ) light chain locus, HSCλ1, that has characteristics of active regulatory elements but lacks intrinsic enhancer or promoter activity. Remarkably, knock-out of the YY1 binding site from HSCλ1 reduces Igλ transcription significantly and disrupts enhancer/promoter interactions, even though these elements are >10 kb from HSCλ1. Genome-wide analyses of mouse embryonic stem cells identified 2671 similar YY1-bound, putative genome organizing elements that lie within CTCF/cohesin loop boundaries but that lack intrinsic enhancer activity. We suggest that such elements play a fundamental role in locus folding and in facilitating enhancer/promoter interactions.

The miR-302/367 cluster: a comprehensive update on its evolution and functions.

microRNAs are a subclass of small non-coding RNAs that fine-tune the regulation of gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. The miR-302/367 cluster, generally consisting of five members, miR-367, miR-302d, miR-302a, miR-302c and miR-302b, is ubiquitously distributed in vertebrates and occupies an intragenic cluster located in the gene La-related protein 7 (LARP7). The cluster was demonstrated to play an important role in diverse biological processes, such as the pluripotency of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs), self-renewal and reprogramming. This paper provides an overview of the mir-302/367 cluster, discusses our current understanding of the cluster's evolutionary history and transcriptional regulation and reviews the literature surrounding the cluster's roles in cell cycle regulation, epigenetic regulation and different cellular signalling pathways.

MicroRNA roles in the NF- κB signaling pathway during viral infections.

NF- κ B signaling network is a crucial component of innate immunity. miRNAs are a subtype of small noncoding RNAs, involved in regulation of gene expression at the posttranscriptional level. Increasing evidence has emerged that miRNAs play an important role in regulation of NF- κ B signaling pathway during viral infections. Both host and viral miRNAs are attributed to modulation of NF- κ B activity, thus affecting viral infection and clearance. Understandings of the mechanisms of these miRNAs will open a direction for development of novel antivirus drugs.

Phylogenetic analysis of the endoribonuclease Dicer family.

Dicers are proteins of the ribonuclease III family with the ability to process dsRNA, involved in regulation of gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. Dicers are conserved from basal metazoans to higher metazoans and contain a number of functional domains that interact with dsRNA. The completed genome sequences of over 34 invertebrate species allowed us to systematically investigate Dicer genes over a diverse range of phyla. The majority of invertebrate Dicers clearly fell into the Dicer1 or Dicer2 subfamilies. Most nematodes possessed only one Dicer gene, a member of the Dicer1 subfamily, whereas two Dicer genes (Dicer1 and Dicer2) were present in all platyhelminths surveyed. Analysis of the key domains showed that a 5' pocket was conserved across members of the Dicer1 subfamily, with the exception of the nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Interestingly, Nematostella vectensis DicerB grouped into Dicer2 subfamily harbored a 5' pocket, which is commonly present in Dicer1. Similarly, the 3' pocket was also found to be conserved in all Dicer proteins with the exceptions of Schmidtea mediterranea Dicer2 and Trichoplax adherens Dicer A. The loss of catalytic residues in the RNase III domain was noted in platyhelminths and cnidarians, and the 'ball' and 'socket' junction between two RNase III domains in platyhelminth Dicers was different from the canonical junction, suggesting the possibility of different conformations. The present data suggest that Dicers might have duplicated and diversified independently, and have evolved for various functions in invertebrates.

Roles of M cells in infection and mucosal vaccines.

The mucosal immune system plays a crucial part in the control of infection. Exposure of humans and animals to potential pathogens generally occurs through mucosal surfaces, thus, strategies that target the mucosa seem rational and efficient vaccination measures. Vaccination through the mucosal immune system can induce effective systemic immune responses simultaneously with mucosal immunity compared with parenteral vaccination. M cells are capable of transporting luminal antigens to the underlying lymphoid tissues and can be exploited by pathogens as an entry portal to invade the host. Therefore, targeting M-cell-specific molecules might enhance antigen entry, initiate the immune response, and induce protection against mucosal pathogens. Here, we outline our understanding of the distribution and function of M cells, and summarize the advances in mucosal vaccine strategies that target M cells.