Cas9 off-target binding to the promoter of bacterial genes leads to silencing and toxicity.

Genetic tools derived from the Cas9 RNA-guided nuclease are providing essential capabilities to study and engineer bacteria. While the importance of off-target effects was noted early in Cas9's application to mammalian cells, off-target cleavage by Cas9 in bacterial genomes is easily avoided due to their smaller size. Despite this, several studies have reported experimental setups in which Cas9 expression was toxic, even when using the catalytic dead variant of Cas9 (dCas9). Specifically, dCas9 was shown to be toxic when in complex with guide RNAs sharing specific PAM (protospacer adjacent motif)-proximal sequence motifs. Here, we demonstrate that this toxicity is caused by off-target binding of Cas9 to the promoter of essential genes, with silencing of off-target genes occurring with as little as 4 nt of identity in the PAM-proximal sequence. Screens performed in various strains of Escherichia coli and other enterobacteria show that the nature of toxic guide RNAs changes together with the evolution of sequences at off-target positions. These results highlight the potential for Cas9 to bind to hundreds of off-target positions in bacterial genomes, leading to undesired effects. This phenomenon must be considered in the design and interpretation of CRISPR-Cas experiments in bacteria.

Light Color Regulation of Photosynthetic Antennae Biogenesis in Marine Phytoplankton.

Photosynthesis in the world's oceans is primarily conducted by phytoplankton, microorganisms that use many different pigments for light capture. Synechococcus is a unicellular cyanobacterium estimated to be the second most abundant marine phototroph, with a global population of 7 x 1026 cells. This group's success is partly due to the pigment diversity in their photosynthetic light harvesting antennae, which maximize photon capture for photosynthesis. Many Synechococcus isolates adjust their antennae composition in response to shifts in the blue:green ratio of ambient light. This response was named Type 4 chromatic acclimation (CA4). Research has made significant progress in understanding CA4 across scales, from its global ecological importance to its molecular mechanisms. Two forms of CA4 exist, each correlated with the occurrence of one of two distinct but related genomic islands. Several genes in these islands are differentially transcribed by the ambient blue:green light ratio. The encoded proteins control the addition of different pigments to the antennae proteins in blue versus green light, altering their absorption characteristics to maximize photon capture. These genes are regulated by several putative transcription factors also encoded in the genomic islands. Ecologically, CA4 is the most abundant of marine Synechococcus pigment types, occurring in over 40% of the population oceanwide. It predominates at higher latitudes and at depth, suggesting that CA4 is most beneficial under sub-saturating photosynthetic light irradiances. Future CA4 research will further clarify the ecological role of CA4 and the molecular mechanisms controlling this globally important form of phenotypic plasticity.

Molecular bases of an alternative dual-enzyme system for light color acclimation of marine Synechococcus cyanobacteria.

Marine Synechococcus cyanobacteria owe their ubiquity in part to the wide pigment diversity of their light-harvesting complexes. In open ocean waters, cells predominantly possess sophisticated antennae with rods composed of phycocyanin and two types of phycoerythrins (PEI and PEII). Some strains are specialized for harvesting either green or blue light, while others can dynamically modify their light absorption spectrum to match the dominant ambient color. This process, called type IV chromatic acclimation (CA4), has been linked to the presence of a small genomic island occurring in two configurations (CA4-A and CA4-B). While the CA4-A process has been partially characterized, the CA4-B process has remained an enigma. Here we characterize the function of two members of the phycobilin lyase E/F clan, MpeW and MpeQ, in Synechococcus sp. strain A15-62 and demonstrate their critical role in CA4-B. While MpeW, encoded in the CA4-B island and up-regulated in green light, attaches the green light-absorbing chromophore phycoerythrobilin to cysteine-83 of the PEII α-subunit in green light, MpeQ binds phycoerythrobilin and isomerizes it into the blue light-absorbing phycourobilin at the same site in blue light, reversing the relationship of MpeZ and MpeY in the CA4-A strain RS9916. Our data thus reveal key molecular differences between the two types of chromatic acclimaters, both highly abundant but occupying distinct complementary ecological niches in the ocean. They also support an evolutionary scenario whereby CA4-B island acquisition allowed former blue light specialists to become chromatic acclimaters, while former green light specialists would have acquired this capacity by gaining a CA4-A island.

Light color acclimation is a key process in the global ocean distribution of Synechococcus cyanobacteria.

Marine Synechococcus cyanobacteria are major contributors to global oceanic primary production and exhibit a unique diversity of photosynthetic pigments, allowing them to exploit a wide range of light niches. However, the relationship between pigment content and niche partitioning has remained largely undetermined due to the lack of a single-genetic marker resolving all pigment types (PTs). Here, we developed and employed a robust method based on three distinct marker genes (cpcBA, mpeBA, and mpeW) to estimate the relative abundance of all known Synechococcus PTs from metagenomes. Analysis of the Tara Oceans dataset allowed us to reveal the global distribution of Synechococcus PTs and to define their environmental niches. Green-light specialists (PT 3a) dominated in warm, green equatorial waters, whereas blue-light specialists (PT 3c) were particularly abundant in oligotrophic areas. Type IV chromatic acclimaters (CA4-A/B), which are able to dynamically modify their light absorption properties to maximally absorb green or blue light, were unexpectedly the most abundant PT in our dataset and predominated at depth and high latitudes. We also identified populations in which CA4 might be nonfunctional due to the lack of specific CA4 genes, notably in warm high-nutrient low-chlorophyll areas. Major ecotypes within clades I-IV and CRD1 were preferentially associated with a particular PT, while others exhibited a wide range of PTs. Altogether, this study provides important insights into the ecology of Synechococcus and highlights the complex interactions between vertical phylogeny, pigmentation, and environmental parameters that shape Synechococcus community structure and evolution.

Diversity and Evolution of Pigment Types in Marine Synechococcus Cyanobacteria.

Synechococcus cyanobacteria are ubiquitous and abundant in the marine environment and contribute to an estimated 16% of the ocean net primary productivity. Their light-harvesting complexes, called phycobilisomes (PBS), are composed of a conserved allophycocyanin core, from which radiates six to eight rods with variable phycobiliprotein and chromophore content. This variability allows Synechococcus cells to optimally exploit the wide variety of spectral niches existing in marine ecosystems. Seven distinct pigment types or subtypes have been identified so far in this taxon based on the phycobiliprotein composition and/or the proportion of the different chromophores in PBS rods. Most genes involved in their biosynthesis and regulation are located in a dedicated genomic region called the PBS rod region. Here, we examine the variability of gene content and organization of this genomic region in a large set of sequenced isolates and natural populations of Synechococcus representative of all known pigment types. All regions start with a tRNA-PheGAA and some possess mobile elements for DNA integration and site-specific recombination, suggesting that their genomic variability relies in part on a "tycheposon"-like mechanism. Comparison of the phylogenies obtained for PBS and core genes revealed that the evolutionary history of PBS rod genes differs from the core genome and is characterized by the co-existence of different alleles and frequent allelic exchange. We propose a scenario for the evolution of the different pigment types and highlight the importance of incomplete lineage sorting in maintaining a wide diversity of pigment types in different Synechococcus lineages despite multiple speciation events.

Crystal structure and molecular mechanism of an E/F type bilin lyase-isomerase.

Chromophore attachment of the light-harvesting apparatus represents one of the most important post-translational modifications in photosynthetic cyanobacteria. Extensive pigment diversity of cyanobacteria critically depends on bilin lyases that covalently attach chemically distinct chromophores to phycobiliproteins. However, how bilin lyases catalyze bilin ligation reactions and how some lyases acquire additional isomerase abilities remain elusive at the molecular level. Here, we report the crystal structure of a representative bilin lyase-isomerase MpeQ. This structure has revealed a "question-mark" protein architecture that unambiguously establishes the active site conserved among the E/F-type bilin lyases. Based on structural, mutational, and modeling data, we demonstrate that stereoselectivity of the active site plays a critical role in conferring the isomerase activity of MpeQ. We further advance a tyrosine-mediated reaction scheme unifying different types of bilin lyases. These results suggest that lyases and isomerase actions of bilin lyases arise from two coupled molecular events of distinct origin.

Vibrational modes of water predict spectral niches for photosynthesis in lakes and oceans.

Stretching and bending vibrations of water molecules absorb photons of specific wavelengths, a phenomenon that constrains light energy available for aquatic photosynthesis. Previous work suggested that these absorption properties of water create a series of spectral niches but the theory was still too simplified to enable prediction of the spectral niches in real aquatic ecosystems. Here, we show with a state-of-the-art radiative transfer model that the vibrational modes of the water molecule delineate five spectral niches, in the violet, blue, green, orange and red parts of the spectrum. These five niches are effectively captured by chlorophylls and phycobilin pigments of cyanobacteria and their eukaryotic descendants. Global distributions of the spectral niches are predicted by satellite remote sensing and validated with observed large-scale distribution patterns of cyanobacterial pigment types. Our findings provide an elegant explanation for the biogeographical distributions of photosynthetic pigments across the lakes and oceans of our planet.

A novel species of the marine cyanobacterium Acaryochloris with a unique pigment content and lifestyle.

All characterized members of the ubiquitous genus Acaryochloris share the unique property of containing large amounts of chlorophyll (Chl) d, a pigment exhibiting a red absorption maximum strongly shifted towards infrared compared to Chl a. Chl d is the major pigment in these organisms and is notably bound to antenna proteins structurally similar to those of Prochloron, Prochlorothrix and Prochlorococcus, the only three cyanobacteria known so far to contain mono- or divinyl-Chl a and b as major pigments and to lack phycobilisomes. Here, we describe RCC1774, a strain isolated from the foreshore near Roscoff (France). It is phylogenetically related to members of the Acaryochloris genus but completely lacks Chl d. Instead, it possesses monovinyl-Chl a and b at a b/a molar ratio of 0.16, similar to that in Prochloron and Prochlorothrix. It differs from the latter by the presence of phycocyanin and a vestigial allophycocyanin energetically coupled to photosystems. Genome sequencing confirmed the presence of phycobiliprotein and Chl b synthesis genes. Based on its phylogeny, ultrastructural characteristics and unique pigment suite, we describe RCC1774 as a novel species that we name Acaryochloris thomasi. Its very unusual pigment content compared to other Acaryochloris spp. is likely related to its specific lifestyle.

Tsv-N1: A Novel DNA Algal Virus that Infects Tetraselmis striata.

Numbering in excess of 10 million per milliliter of water, it is now undisputed that aquatic viruses are one of the major factors shaping the ecology and evolution of Earth's microbial world. Nonetheless, environmental viral diversity and roles remain poorly understood. Here we report the first thorough characterization of a virus (designated TsV) that infects the coastal marine microalga Tetraselmis striata. Unlike previously known microalgae-infecting viruses, TsV is a small (60 nm) DNA virus, with a 31 kb genome. From a range of eight different strains belonging to the Chlamydomonadaceae family, TsV was only able to infect T. striata. Gene expression dynamics revealed an up-regulation of viral transcripts already 1 h post-infection (p.i.). First clear signs of infection were observed 24 h p.i., with the appearance of viral factories inside the nucleus. TsV assembly was exclusively nuclear. TsV-N1 genome revealed very different from previously known algae viruses (Phycodnaviridae). Putative function and/or homology could be resolved for only 9 of the 33 ORFs encoded. Among those was a surprising DNA polymerase type Delta (only found in Eukaryotes), and two genes with closest homology to genes from human parasites of the urogenital tract. These results support the idea that the diversity of microalgae viruses goes far beyond the Phycodnaviridae family and leave the door open for future studies on implications of microalgae viruses for human health.