Adenosine receptors as promising targets for the management of ocular diseases.

The ocular drug discovery arena has undergone a significant improvement in the last few years culminating in the FDA approvals of 8 new drugs. However, despite a large number of drugs, generics, and combination products available, it remains an urgent need to find breakthrough strategies and therapies for tackling ocular diseases. Targeting the adenosinergic system may represent an innovative strategy for discovering new ocular therapeutics. This review focused on the recent advance in the field and described the numerous nucleoside and non-nucleoside modulators of the four adenosine receptors (ARs) used as potential tools or clinical drug candidates.

From the covalent linkage of drugs to novel inhibitors of ribonucleotide reductase: synthesis and biological evaluation of valproic esters of 3'-C-methyladenosine.

We synthesized a series of serum-stable covalently linked drugs derived from 3'-C-methyladenosine (3'-Me-Ado) and valproic acid (VPA), which are ribonucleotide reductase (RR) and histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors, respectively. While the combination of free VPA and 3'-Me-Ado resulted in a clear synergistic apoptotic effect, the conjugates had lost their HDAC inhibitory effect as well as the corresponding apoptotic activity. Two of the analogs, 2',5'-bis-O-valproyl-3'-C-methyladenosine (A160) and 5'-O-valproyl-3'-C-methyladenosine (A167), showed promising cytotoxic activities against human hematological and solid cancer cell lines. A167 was less potent than A160 but had interesting features as an RR inhibitor. It inhibited RR activity by competing with ATP as an allosteric effector and concomitantly reduced the intracellular deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) pools. A167 represents a novel lead compound, which in contrast to previously used RR nucleoside analogs does not require intracellular kinases for its activity and therefore holds promise against drug resistant tumors with downregulated nucleoside kinases.

5'-Chloro-5'-deoxy-(±)-ENBA, a potent and selective adenosine A(1) receptor agonist, alleviates neuropathic pain in mice through functional glial and microglial changes without affecting motor or cardiovascular functions.

This study was undertaken in order to investigate the effect of chronic treatment with 5′-chloro-5′-deoxy-(±)-ENBA, a potent and highly selective agonist of human adenosine A(1) receptor, on thermal hyperalgesia and mechanical allodynia in a mouse model of neuropathic pain, the Spared Nerve Injury (SNI) of the sciatic nerve. Chronic systemic administration of 5′-chloro-5′-deoxy-(±)-ENBA (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.) reduced both mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia 3 and 7 days post-SNI, in a way prevented by DPCPX (3 mg/kg, i.p.), a selective A(1) adenosine receptor antagonist, without exerting any significant change on the motor coordination or arterial blood pressure. In addition, a single intraperitoneal injection of 5′-chloro-5′-deoxy-(±)-ENBA (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.) 7 days post-SNI also reduced both symptoms for at least two hours. SNI was associated with spinal changes in microglial activation ipsilaterally to the nerve injury. Activated, hypertrophic microglia were significantly reduced by 5′-chloro-5′-deoxy-(±)-ENBA chronic treatment. Our results demonstrated an involvement of adenosine A(1) receptor in the amplified nociceptive thresholds and in spinal glial and microglial changes occurred in neuropathic pain, without affecting motor coordination or blood pressure. Our data suggest a possible use of adenosine A(1) receptor agonist in neuropathic pain symptoms.

Recent Progress in Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors as Anticancer Agents.

Histone Deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors are a relatively new class of anti-cancer agents that play important roles in epigenetic or non-epigenetic regulation, inducing death, apoptosis, and cell cycle arrest in cancer cells. Recently, their use has been clinically validated in cancer patients resulting in the approval by the FDA of four HDAC inhibitors, vorinostat, romidepsin, belinostat and panobinostat, used for the treatment of cutaneous/peripheral T-cell lymphoma and multiple myeloma. Many more HDAC inhibitors are at different stages of clinical development for the treatment of hematological malignancies as well as solid tumors. Also, clinical trials of several HDAC inhibitors for use as anti-cancer drugs (alone or in combination with other anti-cancer therapeutics) are ongoing. In the intensifying efforts to discover new, hopefully, more therapeutically efficacious HDAC inhibitors, molecular modelingbased rational drug design has played an important role. In this review, we summarize four major structural classes of HDAC inhibitors (hydroxamic acid derivatives, aminobenzamide, cyclic peptide and short-chain fatty acids) that are in clinical trials and different computer modeling tools available for their structural modifications as a guide to discover additional HDAC inhibitors with greater therapeutic utility.

Selective inhibition of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide kinases by dinucleoside disulfide mimics of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide analogues.

Diadenosine disulfide (5) was reported to inhibit NAD kinase from Listeria monocytogenes and the crystal structure of the enzyme-inhibitor complex has been solved. We have synthesized tiazofurin adenosine disulfide (4) and the disulfide 5, and found that these compounds were moderate inhibitors of human NAD kinase (IC(50)=110 microM and IC(50)=87 microM, respectively) and Mycobacterium tuberculosis NAD kinase (IC(50)=80 microM and IC(50)=45 microM, respectively). We also found that NAD mimics with a short disulfide (-S-S-) moiety were able to bind in the folded (compact) conformation but not in the common extended conformation, which requires the presence of a longer pyrophosphate (-O-P-O-P-O-) linkage. Since majority of NAD-dependent enzymes bind NAD in the extended conformation, selective inhibition of NAD kinases by disulfide analogues has been observed. Introduction of bromine at the C8 of the adenine ring restricted the adenosine moiety of diadenosine disulfides to the syn conformation making it even more compact. The 8-bromoadenosine adenosine disulfide (14) and its di(8-bromoadenosine) analogue (15) were found to be the most potent inhibitors of human (IC(50)=6 microM) and mycobacterium NAD kinase (IC(50)=14-19 microM reported so far. None of the disulfide analogues showed inhibition of lactate-, and inosine monophosphate-dehydrogenase (IMPDH), enzymes that bind NAD in the extended conformation.

5'-Carbamoyl derivatives of 2'-C-methyl-purine nucleosides as selective A1 adenosine receptor agonists: affinity, efficacy, and selectivity for A1 receptor from different species.

A series of 5'-carbamoyl and 5'-thionocarbamoyl derivatives of 2'-C-methyl analogues of the A(1) adenosine receptor (A(1)AR) full agonists N(6)-cyclopentyladenosine (CPA), 2-chloro-N(6)-cyclopentyladenosine (CCPA), N(6)-[3-(R)-tetrahydrofuranyl]adenosine (tecadenoson), and 2-chloro analogue (2-Cl-tecadenoson) was synthesized and evaluated for their affinity for adenosine receptor subtypes from bovine, porcine, and human species. In the N(6)-cyclopentylamino series, the 5'-substituted derivatives showed a reduced affinity at the bovine A(1)AR compared to the parent compounds; however, the selectivity for A(1) versus A(2A) receptor was retained or increased. The corresponding N(6)-3-(R)-tetrahydrofuranylamino analogues displayed a very low affinity toward the bovine A(1)AR. The 5'-methylthionocarbamoyl derivative of 2'-Me-CCPA showed the best affinity at porcine A(1)AR with a K(i) value of 13 nM. At human AR subtypes tecadenoson derivatives showed 2.3- to 5-fold lower affinity at A(1)AR and very low affinity at the other subtypes (A(2A), A(2B), and A(3)) compared to the corresponding N(6)-cyclopentyl analogues. The 5'-carbamoyl and 5'-thionocarbamoyl derivatives of 2'-Me-CCPA 3, 4, 7 and tecadenoson derivative 12 were found to be partial A(1) agonists at the porcine receptor. Docking studies explained the lower affinity of N(6)-3-(R)-tetrahydrofuranyl-substituted compounds at bovine A(1)AR compared to that of N(6)-cyclopentyl analogues, showing that the oxygen of the tetrahydrofuranyl ring establishes unfavorable electrostatic interactions with the CO oxygen of Asn254. The low binding affinity of the 2'-C-methyl-N(6)-3-(R)-tetrahydrofuranyl adenosine analogues at human A(1)AR may be ascribed to the presence of unfavorable interactions between the hydrophilic tetrahydrofuranyl ring and the surrounding hydrophobic residues Leu250 (TM6) and Ile274 (TM7).

Synthesis and potency of novel uracil nucleotides and derivatives as P2Y2 and P2Y6 receptor agonists.

The phosphate, uracil, and ribose moieties of uracil nucleotides were varied structurally for evaluation of agonist activity at the human P2Y(2), P2Y(4), and P2Y(6) receptors. The 2-thio modification, found previously to enhance P2Y(2) receptor potency, could be combined with other favorable modifications to produce novel molecules that exhibit high potencies and receptor selectivities. Phosphonomethylene bridges introduced for stability in analogues of UDP, UTP, and uracil dinucleotides markedly reduced potency. Truncation of dinucleotide agonists of the P2Y(2) receptor, in the form of Up(4)-sugars, indicated that a terminal uracil ring is not essential for moderate potency at this receptor and that specific SAR patterns are observed at this distal end of the molecule. Key compounds reported in this study include 9, alpha,beta-methylene-UDP, a P2Y(6) receptor agonist; 30, Up(4)-phenyl ester and 34, Up(4)-[1]glucose, selective P2Y(2) receptor agonists; dihalomethylene phosphonate analogues 16 and 41, selective P2Y(2) receptor agonists; 43, the 2-thio analogue of INS37217 (P(1)-(uridine-5')-P(4)-(2'-deoxycytidine-5')tetraphosphate), a potent and selective P2Y(2) receptor agonist.

The synergistic apoptotic effects of thiophenfurin, an inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase inhibitor, in combination with retinoids in HL60 cells.

New effective cytotoxic agents and combinations are urgently needed in cancer treatment. The enzyme inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase is a potentially useful target for drug development, since its activity has been shown to be amplified in malignant cells. Thiophenfurin, an inhibitor of the enzyme synthesized by us, is endowed with a significant apoptotic activity in promyelocytic leukaemia HL60 cells. Since retinoids were successfully employed in the treatment of patients with leukaemia, demonstrating significant differentiation-inducing and apoptotic effects, we carried out this study to evaluate the effects of the combination of thiophenfurin and several retinoid molecules, acting in different phases of the cell cycle in vitro. The results show that thiophenfurin is capable of eliciting significant S phase-specific antiproliferative effects in different sensitive and resistant cell lines with the IC50s ranging from 6.7 to 26 microM. When HL60 cells were treated with thiophenfurin in combination with retinoids, the effects on cell growth were additive or synergistic, depending on the kind of retinoid used and the sequence of treatment. In particular, we observed additive effects when the cells were exposed to thiophenfurin and all-transretinoic acid either simultaneously or sequentially. Instead, when the new heterocyclic retinoid isoxazole benzoic acid was used, synergism was obtained in the cells treated sequentially. The combination of thiophenfurin and isoxazole benzoic acid determined synergistic apoptotic effects through a mitochondrion-dependent mechanism, suggesting the possible usefulness of this combination in the treatment of leukaemia.

Development of C-Methyl Branched Purine Ribonucleoside Analogs: Chemistry, Biological Activity and Therapeutic Potential.

In this review, we first highlighted on C-methyl-branched nucleosides and nucleotides approved as anti-hepatitis C infection (HCV) drugs, their mechanism of action and recent progress in the development of new clinical candidates. Then, we report on our attempt to develop several C-methyl nucleosides/tides potentially useful for treatment of various diseases such cancer, pain, epilepsy and glaucoma. Design, synthesis and pharmacological screening of 1'-C-, 2'-C-, 3'-C-methyladenosine or other purine/pyrimidine nucleosides allowed us to discover some promising new molecules. 3'-C-Methyladenosine showed antitumor activity against several human tumor cell lines. We have investigated the mechanism of action of 3;-C-methyladenosine that proved to be an effective inhibitor of ribonucleotide reductase. Moreover, we will also summarize the chemical and biological properties of some of the recent N6-substituted and 5', N6-disubstituted 2'-C-methyladenosine derivatives that were synthetized in our laboratory and evaluated as A1 adenosine receptor agonists. 2-Chloro-2'- C-methyl-N6-cyclopentyladenosine (2'-Me-CCPA), 5'-chloro-5'-deoxy-N6-(±)-(endo-norborn- 2-yl)adenosine (5'Cl5'd-(±)-ENBA) and 2'-C-methyl-5'-chloro-5'-deoxy-N6-(±)-(endonorborn- 2-yl)adenosine (2'-Me-5'Cl5'd-(±)-ENBA) displayed high hA1AR affinity and selectivity. 2'-Me-CCPA and 5'Cl5'd-(±)-ENBA showed significant analgesic properties.

Synthesis, biological evaluation, and molecular modeling of ribose-modified adenosine analogues as adenosine receptor agonists.

A number of 3'-C-methyl analogues of selective adenosine receptor agonists such as CPA, CHA, CCPA, 2'-Me-CCPA, NECA, and IB-MECA was synthesized to further investigate the subdomain of the receptor that binds the ribose moiety of the ligands. Affinity data at A(1), A(2A), and A(3) receptors in bovine brain membranes showed that the 3'-C-modification in adenosine resulted in a decrease of the affinity at all three receptor subtypes. When this modification was combined with N(6)-substitution with groups that induce high potency and selectivity at A(1) receptor, the affinity and selectivity were increased. However, all 3'-C-methyl derivatives proved to be very less active than the corresponding 2'-C-methyl analogues. The most active compound was found to be 3'-Me-CPA which displayed a K(i) value of 0.35 microM at A(1) receptor and a selectivity for A(1) vs A(2A) and A(3) receptors higher than 28-fold. 2'-Me-CCPA was confirmed to be the most selective, high affinity agonist so far known also at human A(1) receptor with a K(i) value of 3.3 nM and 2903- and 341-fold selective vs human A(2A) and A(3) receptors, respectively. In functional assay, 3'-Me-CPA, 3'-Me-CCPA, and 2-Cl-3'-Me-IB-MECA inhibited forskolin-stimulated adenylyl cyclase activity with IC(50) values ranging from 0.3 to 4.9 microM, acting as full agonists. A rhodopsin-based model of the bovine A(1)AR was built to rationalize the higher affinity and selectivity of 2'-C-methyl derivatives of N(6)-substituted-adenosine compared to that of 3'-C-methyl analogues. In the docking exploration, it was found that 2'-Me-CCPA was able to form a number of interactions with several polar residues in the transmembrane helices TM-3, TM-6, and TM-7 of bA(1)AR which were not preserved in the molecular dynamics simulation of 3'-Me-CCPA/bA(1)AR complex.

Antitumor activity of C-methyl-beta-D-ribofuranosyladenine nucleoside ribonucleotide reductase inhibitors.

A series of adenosine derivatives substituted at the 1'-, 2'-, or 3'-position of the ribose ring with a methyl group was synthesized and evaluated for antitumor activity. From this study 3'-C-methyladenosine (3'-Me-Ado) emerged as the most active compound, showing activity against human myelogenous leukemia K562, multidrug resistant human leukemia K562IU, human promyelocytic leukemia HL-60, human colon carcinoma HT-29, and human breast carcinoma MCF-7 cell lines with IC(50) values ranging from 11 to 38 muM. Structure-activity relationship studies showed that the structure of 3'-Me-Ado is crucial for the activity. Substitution of a hydrogen atom of the N(6)-amino group with a small alkyl or cycloalkyl group, the introduction of a chlorine atom in the 2-position of the purine ring, or the moving of the methyl group from the 3'-position to other ribose positions brought about a decrease or loss of antitumor activity. The antiproliferative activity of 3'-Me-Ado appears to be related to its ability to deplete both intracellular purine and pyrimidine deoxynucleotides through ribonucleotide reductase inhibition.

Ribose-modified mizoribine analogues: synthesis and biological evaluation.

Synthesis, conformational analysis and antitumor evaluation of 2'- and 3'-C-methyl analogues of mizoribine (bredinine, 4-carbamoyl-1-beta-D-ribofuranosylimidazole-5-olate) are reported.

5'-C-Ethyl-tetrazolyl-N(6)-substituted adenosine and 2-chloro-adenosine derivatives as highly potent dual acting A1 adenosine receptor agonists and A3 adenosine receptor antagonists.

A series of N(6)-substituted-5'-C-(2-ethyl-2H-tetrazol-5-yl)-adenosine and 2-chloro-adenosine derivatives was synthesized as novel, highly potent dual acting hA1AR agonists and hA3AR antagonists, potentially useful in the treatment of glaucoma and other diseases. The best affinity and selectivity profiles were achieved by N(6)-substitution with a 2-fluoro-4-chloro-phenyl- or a methyl- group. Through an in silico receptor-driven approach, the molecular bases of the hA1- and hA3AR recognition and activation of this series of 5'-C-ethyl-tetrazolyl derivatives were explained.

Ribose-modified nucleosides as ligands for adenosine receptors: synthesis, conformational analysis, and biological evaluation of 1'-C-methyl adenosine analogues.

1'-C-Methyl analogues of adenosine and selective adenosine A(1) receptor agonists, such as N-[(1R)-1-methyl-2-phenylethyl]adenosine ((R)-PIA) and N(6)-cyclopentyladenosine, were synthesized to further investigate the subdomain that binds the ribose moiety. Binding affinities of these new compounds at A(1) and A(2A) receptors in rat brain membranes and at A(3) in rat testis membranes were determined and compared. It was found that the 1'-C-methyl modification in adenosine resulted in a decrease of affinity, particularly at A(1) and A(2A) receptors. When this modification was combined with N(6) substitutions with groups that induce high potency and selectivity at A(1) receptors, the high affinity was in part restored and the selectivity was increased. The most potent compound proved to be the 1'-C-methyl analogue of (R)-PIA with a K(i) of 23 nM for the displacement of [(3)H]CHA binding from rat brain A(1) receptors and a > 435-fold selectivity over A(2A) receptors. In functional assays, these compounds inhibited forskolin-stimulated adenylate cyclase with IC(50) values ranging from 0.065 to 3.4 microM, acting as full agonists. Conformational analysis based on vicinal protonminus signproton J-coupling constants and molecular mechanics calculations using the MM2 force field proved that the methyl group on C1' in adenosine has a pronounced impact on the furanose conformation by driving its conformational equilibrium toward the north, gamma+, syn form.

Synthesis and biological activity of novel N6-substituted and 2,N6-disubstituted adenine ribo- and 3'-C-methyl-ribonucleosides as antitumor agents.

A series of N6-aminopurine-9-ß-D-ribonucleosides and ribose-modified 3'-C-methyl analogues substituted at N6-position with a small group like hydroxy, methoxy or amino group or at C2(N6) position have been synthesized and tested against a panel of human leukemia and carcinoma cell lines. N6-Hydrazino-9-ß-D-ribofuranosyl-purine (5) displayed the best antiproliferative activity in the low micromolar or submicromolar range against all tested tumor cell lines. The activity of this nucleoside is related in part to ribonucleotide reductase inhibition. C2-modification or 3'-C-methylation in N6-substituted adenosine analogues leads to a decrease or loss in activity.

Histone deacetylase inhibition modulates deoxyribonucleotide pools and enhances the antitumor effects of the ribonucleotide reductase inhibitor 3'-C-methyladenosine in leukaemia cells.

Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors are a new class of epigenetic agents that were reported to enhance the cytotoxic effects of classical anticancer drugs through multiple mechanisms. However, which of the possible drug combinations would be the most effective and clinically useful are to be determined. We treated the HL60 and NB4 promyelocytic leukaemia cells with a combination of the ribonucleotide reductase (RR) inhibitor 3'-C-methyladenosine (3'-Me-Ado) and several hydroxamic acid-derived HDAC inhibitors, including two recently synthesized molecules, MC1864 and MC1879, and the reference compound trichostatin A (TSA). The results showed significant growth inhibitory and apoptotic synergistic effects with the combinations. Hence, we evaluated the effects of the combinations on cell cycle distribution and on the level of several proteins involved in the apoptotic process (p21, caspase-3, Bcl-2, Bax, AIF). Since HDAC inhibitors increased the G1-S transition block induced by 3'-Me-Ado, an effect on RR activity was hypothesized. Indeed, the HPLC evaluation of intracellular deoxyribonucleotide (dNTP) pools showed that both TSA and MC1864 induced a decrease in dNTPs, even if with a somewhat different pattern, suggesting that RR inhibition contributes to the observed synergism. Furthermore, while TSA was shown to activate the intrinsic apoptotic pathway, MC1864 induced a dose-dependent increase in ROS and AIF levels. Moreover, the treatment with the radical scavenger N-acetylcysteine determined a significant inhibition of MC1864- but not TSA-mediated synergistic effects. Hence, our findings are consistent with a possible role of HDAC inhibitor mediated-ROS induction in RR inhibition and in the potentiation of RR inhibitor-mediated apoptosis.

N6-Cycloalkyl- and N6-bicycloalkyl-C5'(C2')-modified adenosine derivatives as high-affinity and selective agonists at the human A1 adenosine receptor with antinociceptive effects in mice.

To further investigate new potent and selective human A(1) adenosine receptor agonists, we have synthesized a series of 5'-chloro-5'-deoxy- and 5'-(2-fluorophenylthio)-5'-deoxy-N(6)-cycloalkyl(bicycloalkyl)-substituted adenosine and 2'-C-methyladenosine derivatives. These compounds were evaluated for affinity and efficacy at human A(1), A(2A), A(2B), and A(3) adenosine receptors. In the series of N(6)-cyclopentyl- and N(6)-(endo-norborn-2-yl)adenosine derivatives, 5'-chloro-5'-deoxy-CPA (1) and 5'-chloro-5'-deoxy-(+/-)-ENBA (3) displayed the highest affinity in the subnanomolar range and relevant selectivity for hA(1) vs the other human receptor subtypes. The higher affinity and selectivity of 5'-chloro-5'-deoxyribonucleoside derivatives 1 and 3 for hA(1) AR vs hA(3) AR compared to that of the parent 5'-hydroxy compounds CPA and (+/-)-ENBA was rationalized by a molecular modeling analysis. 5'-Chloro-5'-deoxy-(+/-)-ENBA, evaluated for analgesic activity in the formalin test in mice, was found to inhibit the first or the second phases of the nocifensive response induced by intrapaw injection of formalin at doses ranging between 1 and 2 mg/kg i.p.

Ribose-modified purine nucleosides as ribonucleotide reductase inhibitors. Synthesis, antitumor activity, and molecular modeling of N6-substituted 3'-C-methyladenosine derivatives.

A series of cycloalkyl, bicycloalkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl N (6)-substituted derivatives of the antitumor agent 3'- C-methyladenosine (3'-Me-Ado), an inhibitor of the alpha Rnr1 subunit of mammalian ribonucleotide reductase (RR), were synthesized. The cytotoxicity of these compounds was evaluated against a panel of human leukemia and carcinoma cell lines and compared to that of some corresponding N (6)-substituted adenosine analogues. N (6)-cycloalkyl-3'- C-methylribonucleosides 2- 7 and N (6)-phenyl analogue 8 were found to inhibit the proliferation of K562 leukemia cells. N (6)-(+/-)- endo-2-norbornyl-3'- C-methyladenosine ( 7) was found to be the most cytotoxic compound, with GI 50 values slightly higher than that of 3'-Me-Ado against K562 and carcinoma cell lines and 2.7 fold higher cytotoxicity against human promyelocytic leukemia HL-60 cells. The SAR study confirms that an unsubstituted N (6)-amino group is essential for optimal cytotoxicity of 3'-Me-Ado against both K562 and carcinoma cell lines. Computational studies, carried out on the eukaryotic alpha subunit (Rnr1) of RR from Saccharomyces cerevisiae were performed to rationalize the observed structure-activity relationships.

Inhibition of HIV-1 replication in macrophages by a heterodinucleotide of lamivudine and tenofovir.

OBJECTIVES: (i) To generate a new heterodinucleotide (3TCpPMPA) comprising the drugs lamivudine and tenofovir which have been shown to act synergistically and (ii) to protect macrophages from 'de novo' HIV-1-infection through its administration. METHODS: 3TCpPMPA was obtained by coupling the morpholidate derivative of tenofovir with the mono n-tri-butylammonium salt of lamivudine 5'-monophosphate. Stability and metabolism were evaluated in vitro and in vivo in mice. 3TCpPMPA was encapsulated into autologous erythrocytes by a procedure of hypotonic dialysis, isotonic resealing and reannealing. 3TCpPMPA-loaded erythrocytes were modified to increase their phagocytosis by human macrophages. Macrophages were infected by HIV-1(Ba-L) and inhibition of HIV-1 replication was assessed by HIV p24(gag) quantification. RESULTS: Pharmacokinetic studies in mice revealed a rapid disappearance of the heterodinucleotide from circulation (t(1/2)=15 min) without any advantage compared with the administration of single drugs. Adding free 3TCpPMPA to macrophages (18 h), a 90% inhibition of viral replication up to 35 days post-treatment was achieved, while only a 60% inhibition was obtained by the combined treatment 3TC and (R)PMPA. When 3TCpPMPA was selectively targeted to the macrophage compartment by a single addition of loaded erythrocytes, the protection of macrophages from 'de novo' infection (99% protection 3 weeks post-treatment) was nearly complete. CONCLUSIONS: Erythrocytes loaded with 3TCpPMPA and modified to increase their phagocytosis are able to protect macrophages from 'de novo' HIV-1 infection. 3TCpPMPA acts as an efficient antiviral pro-drug that, once inside macrophages, can be slowly converted into 3TCMP and (R)PMPA protecting these cells for a longer period of time.

Synthesis, conformational analysis, and biological activity of new analogues of thiazole-4-carboxamide adenine dinucleotide (TAD) as IMP dehydrogenase inhibitors.

Thiazole-4-carboxamide adenine dinucleotide (TAD) analogues T-2'-MeAD (1) and T-3'-MeAD (2) containing, respectively, a methyl group at the ribose 2'-C-, and 3'-C-position of the adenosine moiety, were prepared as potential selective human inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH) type II inhibitors. The synthesis of heterodinucleotides was carried out by CDI-catalyzed coupling reaction of unprotected 2'-C-methyl- or 3'-C-methyl-adenosine 5'-monophosphate with 2',3'-O-isopropylidene-tiazofurin 5'-monophosphate, and then deisopropylidenation. Biological evaluation of dinucleotides 1 and 2 as inhibitors of recombinant human IMPDH type I and type II resulted in a good activity. Inhibition of both isoenzymes by T-2'-MeAD and T-3'-MeAD was noncompetitive with respect to NAD substrate. Binding of T-3'-MeAD was comparable to that of parent compound TAD, while T-2'-MeAD proved to be a weaker inhibitor. However, no significant difference was found in inhibition of the IMPDH isoenzymes. T-2'-MeAD and T-3'-MeAD were found to inhibit the growth of K562 cells (IC(50) 30.7 and 65.0muM, respectively).