The Relationship Between Mental Fatigue and Shooting Performance Over the Course of a National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I Basketball Season.

ABSTRACT: Daub, BD, McLean, BD, Heishman, AD, Peak, KM, and Coutts, AJ. The relationship between mental fatigue and shooting performance over the course of a National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I basketball season. J Strength Cond Res 38(2): 334-341, 2024-The aim of this investigation was to examine the presence of mental fatigue and concurrent changes in shooting performance across various experimental weeks throughout a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) basketball season. Fifteen elite male NCAA Division I collegiate basketball players (age 20.2 ± 1.2 years, height 199.3 ± 7.1 cm, and body mass 93.1 ± 8.6 kg) volunteered for this study. Mental fatigue and basketball shooting performance was evaluated at 4 timepoints with varying seasonal demands: high game volume (GAME), high academic load (ACADEMIC), no games and no academic load (PRACTICE), and standard number of games and academic requirements (TYPICAL). Subjective mental fatigue increased significantly ( p ≤ 0.05) from Pre to Post brief psychomotor vigilance test (PVT-B) measurements at the end of the ACADEMIC week ( p = 0.002, d = 1.51) and from beginning to end of the ACADEMIC week ( p < 0.001, d = 2.21). Ratings of mental effort were significantly increased during the ACADEMIC week ( p < 0.001, d = 1.67). Recovery stress questionnaire (REST-Q) showed significant differences between week GAME and ACADEMIC with an increase in Social Stress ( p = 0.001, d = 0.84), Fatigue ( p = 0.021, d = 1.12), Disturbed Breaks ( p = 0.024, d = 0.57), and Emotional Exhaustion ( p = 0.035, d = 0.75). Lower shooting performance was observed during the ACADEMIC week from Pre to Post ( p = 0.009, d = 0.35) and higher scores Pre to Post in the TYPICAL week ( p = 0.008, d = 0.25). Basketball shooting performance was significantly reduced after increased levels of mental fatigue stemming from added academic stress. In addition, an increase in sport-specific training or games had no effect on subsequent basketball shooting performance. Special consideration should be given by coaches around examination periods because the existence of academic stressors can influence basketball shooting performance.

Associations of serum IL-6 with muscle, bone, and adipose tissue in women.

This cross-sectional study examined the associations between serum interleukin-6 (IL-6) and muscle, bone, and fat parameters in recreationally active women. One-hundred forty-five women (48.7 ± 17.8 years; 164.4 ± 7.1 cm; 66.8 ± 10.7 kg; and 24.7 ± 3.9 kg/m2) underwent dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) assessments to determine total and regional muscle, bone, and fat parameters. Muscle performance of the knee extensors was examined via isometric, isotonic, and isokinetic dynamometry assessments, and serum IL-6 was measured via enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. Serum IL-6 was inversely associated with thigh muscle cross-sectional area (mCSA, r = -0.28, p < 0.01); isometric strength (r = -0.19, p < 0.05); hip areal bone mineral density [aBMD] (r = -0.18, p < 0.05); trochanter aBMD (r = -0.23, p < 0.01); total body aBMD (r = -0.20, p < 0.05); cortical volumetric bone density at 38 and 66% tibia (r = -0.18 and r = -0.19, respectively, both p < 0.05), and 66% cortical thickness (r = -0.17, p < 0.05). These associations were present after adjusting for age, BMI, and physical activity. Thigh mCSA was significantly lower in the tertile possessing the greatest IL-6 compared to the lowest tertile (p < 0.01); after adjusting for age, body mass index, and physical activity. Collectively, these observations indicate that IL-6 is inversely associated with skeletal muscle and bone parameters independent of relevant confounders. These observations bolster the prognostic value of serum IL-6.

Longitudinal Hydration Assessment in Collegiate Basketball Players Over Various Training Phases.

ABSTRACT: Heishman, AD, Daub, BD, Miller, RM, Freitas, EDS, and Bemben, MG. Longitudinal hydration assessment in collegiate basketball players over various training phases. J Strength Cond Res 35(4): 1089-1094, 2021-To the best of our knowledge, previous literature has not longitudinally examined hydration status in collegiate basketball players. Therefore, the purpose of this investigation was to examine the prepractice hydration status of collegiate basketball players across various training phases for 2 consecutive years. Retrospective analyses examined prepractice urine-specific gravity (USG) assessments obtained from National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I male basketball players during the preseason and competitive season, for 2 consecutive years. The first year (year 1 = Y1) of analysis consisted of 15 athletes and the second year (year 2 = Y2) consisted of 16 athletes, with 8 athletes in both seasons. Hydration status was classified based on the National Athletic Trainers' criteria: (a) euhydrated, USG < 1.020; (b) hypohydrated, USG = 1.020-1.030; and (c) significantly hypohydrated, USG > 1.030. Additional comparisons examined the association of minutes played with hydration status and changes in hydration status for athletes returning from Y1 to Y2. The results indicated 55-65.7% of cases showed levels of significant hypohydration during the preseason and competitive seasons for both years. Preseason hydration status was significantly better than the competitive season (Y1, p = 0.008; Y2, p = 0.005). Despite significant differences in minutes played (p < 0.001), no differences in hydration status were observed. Returning athletes displayed no differences in hydration status between Y1 and Y2. Collegiate basketball players show levels of hypohydration when longitudinally examined across various training phases. Although hydration may be improved in the preseason, alternative factors such as average game minutes played and length in program may not influence hydration status.

Effects of an Experimental vs. Traditional Military Training Program on 2-Mile Run Performance During the Army Physical Fitness Test.

Stone, BL, Heishman, AD, and Campbell, JA. The effects of an experimental vs. traditional military training program on 2-mile run performance during the army physical fitness test. J Strength Cond Res 34(12): 3431-3438, 2020-The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of an experimental vs. traditional military run training on 2-mile run ability in the Army Reserve Officers' Training Corps cadets. Fifty college-aged cadets were randomly placed into 2 groups and trained for 4 weeks with either an experimental running program (EXP, n = 22) comprised rating of perceived exertion (RPE) intensity-specific, energy system-based intervals or with traditional military running program (TRA, n = 28) using a crossover study design. A 2-mile run assessment was performed just before the start, at the end of the first 4 weeks, and again after the second 4 weeks of training after crossover. The EXP program significantly decreased 2-mile run times (961.3 ± 155.8 seconds to 943.4 ± 140.2 seconds, p = 0.012, baseline to post 1), whereas the TRA group experienced a significant increase in run times (901.0 ± 79.2 vs. 913.9 ± 82.9 seconds) over the same training period. There was a moderate effect size (d = 0.61, p = 0.07) for the experimental run program to "reverse" the adverse effects of the traditional program within the 4-week training period (post 1 to post 2) after treatment crossover. Thus, for short-term training of military personnel, RPE intensity-specific running program comprising aerobic and anaerobic system development can enhance 2-mile run performance superior to a traditional program while reducing training volume (60 minutes per session vs. 43.2 minutes per session, respectively). Future research should extend the training period to determine efficacy of this training approach for long-term improvement of aerobic capacity and possible reduction of musculoskeletal injury.

Evaluating the Effects of Underloaded and Overloaded Warm-ups on Subsequent Swing Velocity.

Miller, RM, Heishman, AD, Freitas, EDS, and Bemben, MG. Evaluating the effects of underloaded and overloaded warm-ups on subsequent swing velocity. J Strength Cond Res 34(4): 1071-1077, 2020-Several attempts to identify the optimal on-deck procedure to enhance swing velocity in baseball have been made. However, inconsistent findings continue to constitute much of the body of literature. In addition, the emergence of athlete monitoring in sport has led to the exploration of more sport-specific tasks to potentially identify athlete fatigue and readiness to perform. Therefore, the purpose of this investigation was to examine 3 different bat weight warm-up protocols on subsequent swing velocity and to examine the reliability of swing velocity measurements to allude to its potential a sport-specific athlete monitoring metric. Thirty-two recreational male baseball players 20.3 ± 2.0 years, 179.6 ± 7.1 cm and 89.6 ± 11.1 kg completed the study. Subjects completed 3 testing visits that included warming up with a control bat ([CB] 32 in., 29 oz), plastic bat ([PB] 31 in., 6.4 oz), or heavy bat ([HB] 32 in., 57 oz). Testing visits began with 3 CB swing trials followed by 3 intervention bat trials, then concluded with 3 additional CB swings. Swing velocity was assessed using visual 3D technology. Analyses of variance indicate that after the PB (26.6 ± 2.0 m·s) and CB interventions (26.2 ± 1.7 m·s) significantly faster (p < 0.001) swing velocities were generated when compared with the traditional HB intervention (24.1 ± 2.2 m·s). When assessed for reliability, the average ICC was 0.681 and Cronbach's alpha was 0.95, indicating exceptional reliability. Congruent to previous research, these data bolster the notion that warming up with a HB can hinder swing velocity. However, in contrast to previous research these data suggest that using a PB can increase swing velocity significantly. Furthermore, visual 3D can be designated as an exceptionally reliable device to measure swing velocity.

Countermovement Jump Reliability Performed With and Without an Arm Swing in NCAA Division 1 Intercollegiate Basketball Players.

Heishman, AD, Daub, BD, Miller, RM, Freitas, EDS, Frantz, BA, and Bemben, MG. Countermovement jump reliability performed with and without an arm swing in NCAA Division 1 intercollegiate basketball players. J Strength Cond Res 34(2): 546-558, 2020-The countermovement jump (CMJ) is routinely used in athlete performance to quantify adaptions to training, as well as monitor neuromuscular readiness and fatigue. However, controversy remains in whether to incorporate an arm swing during the CMJ (CMJ AS) or keep the hands placed on the hips (CMJ NAS). Incorporating the arms provides a higher degree of sport-specificity that may yield improved reliability, especially in skilled jumpers. By contrast, the hands-on-hips approach isolates lower extremity force production and eliminates potential arm-swing variation. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to establish the reliability of CMJ typical (CMJ-TYP), CMJ concentric alternative (CMJ-Conc-ALT), and CMJ eccentric alternative (CMJ-Ecc-ALT) variables obtained during the CMJ AS and CMJ NAS. Twenty-two (men = 14, women = 8) NCAA Division 1 collegiate basketball players performed 3 CMJ AS and 3 CMJ NAS on a force plate, in a randomized order. To assess the test-retest reliability, participants returned 1 week later to perform 3 additional CMJ AS and 3 CMJ NAS. Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and coefficient of variation (CV) were used to assess intersession and intrasession reliability for the various CMJ variables. A majority of CMJ-TYP and several CMJ-Conc-ALT and CMJ-Ecc-ALT variables exhibited adequate intersession and intrasession reliability (ICC > 0.700 and CV <10%) during both the CMJ AS and the CMJ NAS. Countermovement jump AS may provide more pertinent information about long-term changes in sport-specific performance, whereas the CMJ NAS may be more beneficial for detecting acute changes in neuromuscular fatigue and athlete readiness.

Test-Retest Reliability Between Free Weight and Machine-Based Movement Velocities.

Miller, RM, Freitas, EDS, Heishman, AD, Koziol, KJ, Galletti, BAR, Kaur, J, and Bemben, MG. Test-retest reliability between free weight and machine-based movement velocities. J Strength Cond Res 34(2): 440-444, 2020-Several devices are available to measure muscular power through velocity measurement, including the Tendo FitroDyne. The ability for such devices to produce consistent results is still questioned, and the reproducibility of measurement between free weight and machine exercise has yet to be examined. Therefore, the aim of this investigation was to determine the test-retest reliability for barbell velocity during the bench press (BP) and weight velocity during the 2 leg press (2LP) for loads corresponding to 20-80% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM). Forty recreationally active individuals (22.6 ± 2.5 years; 175.9 ± 10.8 cm; and 76.2 ± 13.2 kg) with a 1RM BP and 2LP of 66.8 ± 32.4 kg and 189.5 ± 49 kg, respectively, volunteered for this study. Subjects completed 1 familiarization visit preceding 3 testing visits, which encompassed 1RM determination and 2 days of velocity testing. Forty-eight hours after 1RM testing, the subjects performed 1 repetition at 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80% of their 1RM for each exercise in randomized order. Subjects returned to the laboratory 1 week later to perform the velocity assessment again in randomized order. Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC2,1) and relative SEM for the BP and 2LP ranged from 0.56 to 0.98 (3-18.1%) and 0.78 to 0.98 (2.8-7.2%), respectively, and no mean differences were observed between trials. The results suggest high reliability for BP velocity between 30 and 60% 1RM and moderate reliability at 20, 70, and 80% 1RM, while the 2LP displayed high to excellent reliability from 20 to 80% 1RM. Cumulatively, machine-based exercise displayed greater reproducibility; however, additional machine exercises need to be examined to bolster this conclusion.

Monitoring External Training Loads and Neuromuscular Performance for Division I Basketball Players over the Preseason.

Limited research has paralleled concomitant changes in external training load (eTL) and countermovement jump (CMJ) performance. Therefore, this investigation characterized eTL and CMJ performance changes across preseason training in Division 1 male collegiate basketball athletes, while examining the influence of position (Guard vs. Forward/Center) and scholarship status (Scholarship = S vs. Walk-on = WO). During 22 practices, eTL was monitored in 14 male athletes, with weekly CMJs performed to quantify neuromuscular performance (Jump Height [JH], Flight Time:Contraction Time [FT:CT], Reactive Strength Index Modified [RSIMod ]). PlayerLoad per minute was significantly higher during W1 and W2 (5.4 ± 1.3au and 5.3 ± 1.2au, respectively; p < 0.05) compared to subsequent weeks, but no additional differences in eTL parameters across time were observed. Scholarship athletes displayed greater PlayerLoad (S = 777.1 ± 35.6, WO = 530.1 ± 56.20; Inertial Movement Analysis (IMA) IMA_High (S = 70.9 ± 15.2, WO = 41.3 ± 15.2); IMA_Medium (S = 159.9 ± 30.7, WO = 92.7 ± 30.6); and IMA_Low (S = 700.6 ± 105.1, WO = 405 ± 105.0;) (p < 0.05), with no observed differences in eTL by position. Moderate decreases in FT:CT and RSIMod paralleled increased eTL. Significant increases in practice intensity (W1 and W2) did not impact CMJ performance, suggesting athletes could cope with the prescribed training loads. However, moderate perturbations in FT:CT and RSIMod paralleled the weeks with intensified training. Cumulatively, scholarship status appears to influence eTL while player position does not.

Maximal power production as a function of sex and training status.

Maximal muscular power is achieved at lower percentages of maximal strength (1RM); however, this notion has not been elucidated based on sex or training status. Therefore, the purpose of this investigation was to examine the influence of sex and training status on maximal power production. Sixty men and women (resistance trained or untrained) completed 1RM testing for the two-leg press (2LP) and bench press (BP). Participants then returned to perform single repetitions at 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 and 80% of their 1RM to determine muscular power. Factorial analyses determined significant interactions (training status by sex by intensity) for the BP (F=35.6, p<0.001) and 2LP (F=8.2, p<0.001). Subsequent analyses indicated that during the BP trained men produce maximal power between 30-40% 1RM compared to untrained men at 60-70% 1RM. Trained women produced maximal power at 50% 1RM compared to untrained women at 60-70% 1RM. During the 2LP, trained men produced maximal power at 40% 1RM compared to untrained men at 60% 1RM. Trained women produced maximal power at 50% 1RM compared to 60-70% 1RM in untrained women. These data suggest that resistance trained individuals and men display maximal power at a lower relative intensity than untrained individuals and women.

Noninvasive Assessment of Internal and External Player Load: Implications for Optimizing Athletic Performance.

Heishman, AD, Curtis, MA, Saliba, E, Hornett, RJ, Malin, SK, and Weltman, AL. Noninvasive assessment of internal and external player load: implications for optimizing athletic performance. J Strength Cond Res 32(5): 1280-1287, 2018-Few data exist that assess athlete tracking and monitoring for the development of strategies to optimize performance and reduce fatigue in elite athletes. The purpose of the present study was to assess the efficacy of external load and internal stress monitoring as assessment tools for examining a performance index of fatigue. A retrospective analysis was performed on data collected over the course of the preseason in 10 elite male NCAA Division 1 basketball players. Internal stress was assessed using Omegawave Technology readiness scores and compared with the performance index of countermovement jump (CMJ). The external load that accumulated during the previous practice, quantified by PlayerLoad (PL; Catapult), was compared with CMJ values and Omegawave scores. The results indicated that high, compared to low CNS Omegawave Readiness Scores (6.7 ± 05.1, 4.5 ± 1.2 AU; p < 0.001), were associated with increased CMJ (62.1 ± 6.5 vs. 59.4 ± 6.6 cm; p = 0.05), Power (6,590 ± 526.7 vs. 6,383.5 ± 606.8 W; p = 0.05), Omegawave Overall Readiness (5.8 ± 1.1 vs. 5.0 ± 0.7 AU; p = 0.05), and Omega Potential (Omega) (21.3 ± 6.3 vs. 9.9 ± 20.8 mV; p = 0.07). An increased PL during the previous exposure was associated with decreased CMJ (58.7 ± 4.7 cm vs. 60.4 ± 5.1 cm; p < 0.001) and increased TRIMP (135.1 ± 35.9 vs. 65.6 ± 20.0 AU; p < 0.001), and duration (115.4 ± 27.1 vs. 65.56 ± 20.0 minutes; p = < 0.001) despite no differences in Omegawave CNS Readiness scores. We conclude that Omegawave and Catapult technologies provide independent information related to performance and may be effective tools for monitoring athlete performance.

Effects of Blood-Flow Restriction Combined With Postactivation Potentiation Stimuli on Jump Performance in Recreationally Active Men.

Miller, RM, Keeter, VM, Freitas, EDS, Heishman, AD, Knehans, AW, Bemben, DA, and Bemben, MG. Effects of blood-flow restriction combined with postactivation potentiation stimuli on jump performance in recreationally active men. J Strength Cond Res 32(7): 1869-1874, 2018-Whole-body vibration (WBV) and maximum voluntary contractions (MVCs) combined with blood-flow restriction (BFR) to augment postactivation potentiation have yet to be examined. Therefore, the purpose of this investigation was to examine the augmented effects of postactivation potentiation when WBV and MVC are combined with BFR. Twenty men (21.8 ± 2.6 years, 180.5 ± 6.2 cm and 84.5 ± 12.1 kg) completed the study. Participants completed 3 testing sessions in a randomized design that included one of the following: (a) control (CON), (b) WBV and WBV combined with BFR (WBV + BFR), or (c) MVC and MVC combined with BFR (MVC + BFR). Jump height and power were recorded for 3 trials, PRE and POST jump height (cm) mean ± SD for each were as follows: CON 58.9 ± 8.6 and 57.9 ± 8.6, WBV 58.2 ± 8.1 and 59.9 ± 8.1, WBV + BFR 58.7 ± 7.6 and 60.2 ± 8.1, MVC 59.7 ± 7.4 and 60.2 ± 8.6, and MVC + BFR 57.7 ± 7.9 and 59.4 ± 8.1. PRE and POST jump power (W) mean ± SD for each were as follows: CON 1,224.3 ± 221.5 and 1,234.3 ± 189.2, WBV 1,251.1 ± 230.4 and 1,266.1 ± 215.7, WBV + BFR 1,265.8 ± 207.9 and 1,259 ± 223.3, MVC 1,264.7 ± 211.9 and 1,263.5 ± 236.5, and MVC + BFR 1,252.3 ± 222.0 and 1,294.6 ± 256.6. Significant differences were revealed in jump height between the 5 interventions (p < 0.01), WBV (p < 0.01), WBV + BFR (p < 0.01), and MVC + BFR (p < 0.01) revealed significant differences in time but no differences in jump power. In conclusion, the results of this study indicate that WBV, WBV + BFR, and MVC + BFR significantly improve jump height and time in air but not jump power.

Comparing Performance During Morning vs. Afternoon Training Sessions in Intercollegiate Basketball Players.

Time of day is a key factor that influences the optimization of athletic performance. Intercollegiate coaches oftentimes hold early morning strength training sessions for a variety of factors including convenience. However, few studies have specifically investigated the effect of early morning vs. late afternoon strength training on performance indices of fatigue. This is athletically important because circadian and/or ultradian rhythms and alterations in sleep patterns can affect training ability. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of morning vs. afternoon strength training on an acute performance index of fatigue (countermovement jump height, CMJ), player readiness (Omegawave), and self-reported sleep quantity. We hypothesized that afternoon training sessions would be associated with increased levels of performance, readiness, and self-reported sleep. A retrospective analysis was performed on data collected over the course of the preseason on 10 elite National Collegiate Athletic Association Division 1 male basketball players. All basketball-related activities were performed in the afternoon with strength and conditioning activities performed either in the morning or in the afternoon. The average values for CMJ, power output (Power), self-reported sleep quantity (sleep), and player readiness were examined. When player load and duration were matched, CMJ (58.8 ± 1.3 vs. 61.9 ± 1.6 cm, p = 0.009), Power (6,378.0 ± 131.2 vs. 6,622.1 ± 172.0 W, p = 0.009), and self-reported sleep duration (6.6 ± 0.4 vs. 7.4 ± 0.25 p = 0.016) were significantly higher with afternoon strength and conditioning training, with no differences observed in player readiness values. We conclude that performance is suppressed with morning training and is associated with a decrease in self-reported quantity of sleep.

Impacts of mental fatigue and sport specific film sessions on basketball shooting tasks.

PURPOSE: The aim of this investigation was to examine the impact of mental fatigue on basketball specific shooting performance, utilising the newly developed basketball Standardized Shooting Task (SST). METHODS: Fifteen male elite NCAA Division 1 collegiate basketball players (Age 20.2 ± 1.2 y, height 199.3 ± 7.1 cm, body mass 93.1 ± 8.6 kg) volunteered to participate in a randomised, counterbalanced crossover design undergoing three conditions (Control, Stroop, and Film). The task, performed on three consecutive days, was comprised of 60 free throw attempts followed by a 4-minute spot-to-spot shooting. RESULTS: Visual Analog Scales revealed significantly higher levels of mental fatigue following the Stroop (54.2 ± 24.5) condition compared to the Control (24.5 ± 16.2) and higher levels of mental effort in the Stroop (61.0 ± 31.3) and Film (49.9 ± 27.7) compared to the Control (14.0 ± 18.5). No significant differences were observed for Motivation among groups (p > 0.05). There was a significant decrease (p = 0.006) in number of shots made in 4-minutes (MAKE4MIN; control = 49.5 ± 10.2, Stroop = 44.0 ± 10.6, and Film = 45.1 ± 11.7) and shots missed in 4-minutes (MISS4MIN; control = 27.3 ± 7.0, Stroop = 30.9 ± 7.1, and Film = 30.9 ± 7.6). No significant differences were detected for any other performance variables. CONCLUSION: These data demonstrate that mental fatigue negatively impacts basketball shooting performance in elite collegiate basketball players. We suggest that practitioners and coaches encourage athletes to abstain from cognitively demanding tasks prior to basketball competition.

Basketball shooting performance was significantly reduced following acutely increased levels of mental fatigue.This study provides novel preliminary evidence that a sport-specific Film session of 30-minutes in duration (or longer) requires a large amount of mental effort and may also have a detrimental effect on subsequent basketball shooting performanceThe outcomes of this study suggest that practitioners and coaches should encourage elite collegiate basketball players to abstain from potential cognitively demanding tasks prior to practice and games when shooting performance is required.

Muscle Performance Changes with Age in Active Women.

The purpose of this study was to examine age-related differences in muscle performance in women divided into young (YW, 20-39 years, n = 29) middle-aged (MAW, 40-59 years, n = 33), and older (OW, ≥60 years, n = 40) age groups. METHODS: Hand grip strength, vertical jump performance, and knee extensor (KE) strength (0 deg/s, 60 deg/s, and 240 deg/s), speed of movement (SoM; at 1 Nm, 20%, 40%, and 60% isometric strength), and endurance (30-repetition test at 60 degs/s and 240 deg/s) were assessed. Computed tomography-acquired muscle cross-sectional area (mCSA) was measured and included to determine specific strength (KE strength/mCSA). RESULTS: Hand grip strength was similar across groups, while jump performance declined with age (YW and MAW > OW, p < 0.001). KE strength declined significantly with age (all conditions p < 0.01), while specific strength was similar across groups. SoM was significantly higher for YW and MAW compared to OW (both p < 0.01). An age × velocity interaction revealed YW KE endurance was similar between conditions, whereas MAW and OW displayed significantly better endurance during the 60 deg/s condition. OW displayed impaired KE endurance at 240 deg/s (vs. YW and MAW, p < 0.01) but improved at 60 deg/s (vs. YW, p < 0.01). Dynamic torque decline increased with age (YW < OW, p = 0.03) and was associated with intramuscular adipose tissue (r = 0.21, p = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: Performance declines were most evident among OW, but few performance deficits had emerged in MAW. Interestingly, strength declines disappeared after normalizing to mCSA and endurance appears to be velocity-dependent.

The perceptual responses of individuals with multiple sclerosis to blood flow restriction versus traditional resistance exercise.

BACKGROUND: Low-load resistance exercise with blood flow restriction (LLBFR-RE) has been shown capable of improving neuromuscular parameters in several clinical populations, however, its tolerability and effects on individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS) remains unknown. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the perceptual responses of individuals with MS to LLBFR-RE versus traditional high-load resistance exercise (HL-RE). METHODS: Four men and eleven women diagnosed with relapsing-remitting MS randomly completed the following experimental trials: 1) LLBFR-RE four sets of 30-15-15-15 repetitions, at 20% of one-repetition maximum (1-RM) of leg-press (LP) and knee-extension (KE), with 50% of BFR, and a 1-min rest interval between sets; 2) HL-RE- four sets of 8-10 repetitions, at 70% 1-RM of LP and KE, with the same rest intervals. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were measured after each set, pain was measured before and after sets, and delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) was measured at 5, 30, 60 min, and 24-h post-exercise. RESULTS: HL-RE elicited significantly (p<0.05) greater RPE compared to LLBFR-RE during all sets. Additionally, there were no significant (p>0.05) differences between LLBFR-RE and HL-RE for pain immediately after all sets, although pain measured before sets were significantly (p<0.05) greater for LLBFR-RE. Finally, both protocols resulted in similar DOMS, however, it was significantly (p<0.05) elevated 24-h post-exercise compared to 1-h after for HL-RE but not for LLBFR-RE. CONCLUSION: Altogether, these data demonstrate that LLBFR-RE is well tolerated by individuals with MS, requires less muscular exertion than HL-RE, and does not cause exaggerated pain during exercise or elevated DOMS up to 24 h post-exercise.

Barbell velocity: a practical and precise method for predicting bench press strength in sedentary women.

BACKGROUND: Bench press one-repetition maximum (BP1RM) prediction models offer a timely approach to predict BP1RM while avoiding the limitations with traditional BP1RM testing. Interestingly, no models have determined the ability for a traditional weight, the 20.5 kg barbell, to predict BP1RM strength. Few models have exclusively examined females and sedentary individuals, leaving the accuracy of these models unknown for these populations. Therefore, this investigation sought to examine the ability for 20.5 kg barbell velocity to predict BP1RM in sedentary females. METHODS: Nineteen sedentary females (21.79±1.43 years, 166.08±7.76 cm, 63.98±7.54 kg, 31.57±4.72 BP1RM) completed BP1RM testing and completed two additional visits to determine 20.5 kg barbell velocity from a single repetition separated by 7-10 days. Nineteen additional females (21.39±1.09 years, 164.31±7.37 cm, 67.34±9.32 kg, 32.75±5.09 BP1RM) served as a cross-validating group completing identical testing procedures. RESULTS: Regression analyses revealed that 20.5 kg barbell velocity accounted for 95% of the variance in BP1RM strength while presenting marginal standard error (1.34 kg) and mean absolute error (0.97 kg), with similar values observed in the cross-validating group (SEE: 2.13 kg, MAE: 1.56 kg). Predicted BP1RM values were not significantly different from actual BP1RM (P=0.43) nor were measures in barbell velocity between trials 1 and 2 (P=0.57), while displaying high reliability (ICC: 0.81). Measure bias between BP1RM methods was 0.449±1.651kg and the agreement between methods varied between -2.78 kg less and 0.3686 kg greater for 95% of the participants. CONCLUSIONS: The present data provides an accurate prediction model regarding BP1RM for sedentary females. These findings can reduce the limitations associated with traditional BP1RM testing while providing a practical and accurate BP1RM approximation with marginal error.

Acute Physiological Responses to Resistance Exercise With Continuous Versus Intermittent Blood Flow Restriction: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

The primary goal of this investigation was to examine the physiological responses of blood flow restriction (BFR) resistance exercise (RE) performed with continuous or intermittent BFR and to compare these results to those from conventional high- and low-load RE without BFR. Fourteen men randomly completed the following experimental trials: (1) low-load RE with continuous BFR (cBFR), (2) low-load RE with intermittent BFR (iBFR), (3) low-load RE without BFR (LI), and (4) conventional high-load RE without BFR (HI). For the cBFR, iBFR, and LI exercise trials, participants performed four sets of 30-15-15-15 repetitions of the bilateral leg press (LP) and knee extension (KE) exercises, at an intensity of 20% of their one-repetition maximum (1-RM), at a 1.5-s contraction speed, and with a 1-min rest period between sets. The only difference between the cBFR and iBFR protocols was that the pressure of the cuffs was released during the rest intervals between sets for the iBFR trial. For the HI trial, participants completed four sets of 10 repetitions of the same exercises, at 70% of 1-RM, with a 1-min rest period between sets, and at the same contraction speed. Muscle activity was assessed during each set using superficial electromyography, as well as changes in blood lactate concentration [La-] from baseline at 5 min post exercise and in muscle swelling and plasma volume (%ΔPV) at 5 and 15 min post exercise. There were no significant differences in muscle activity (p < 0.05) across the cBFR, iBFR, and LI protocols at any time point, whereas they were all significantly lower than HI. There were also no significant (p < 0.05) differences across the three low-load RE conditions for [La-],%ΔPV, or muscle swelling. HI elicited significantly (p < 0.05) greater responses than cBFR, iBFR, and LI for all the physiological markers measured. In conclusion, RE combined with cBFR or iBFR induce the same acute physiological responses. However, the largest physiological responses are observed with HI, probably because of the significantly greater exercise volumes. Therefore, releasing the pressure of the restrictive cuffs during the rest periods between sets will not hinder the acute physiological responses from BFR RE.

Perceptual responses: Clinical versus practical blood flow restriction resistance exercise.

The purpose of the current investigation was to compare the acute perceptual responses during low-load resistance exercise (RE) with clinical blood flow restriction (cBFR-RE) and practical blood flow restriction (pBFR-RE), and during conventional low- (LL-RE) and high-load resistance exercise (HL-RE), to determine if these responses differed between young males and females. Twenty-nine participants (14 males: 23.6±2.7years, 25.3±3.1kg/m2 and 15 females: 20.3±1.6years, 23.4±1.9kg/m2) completed the following exercise conditions in a randomized design: 1) cBFR-RE, 2) pBFR-RE, 3) HL-RE, and 4) LL-RE. Low-load conditions consisted of 30-15-15-15 repetitions of two-leg press (LP) and knee extension (KE) exercises with 30% one-repetition maximum (1-RM), and HL-RE consisted of 3 sets of 10 repetitions at 80% 1-RM, all with 60s rest intervals. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and discomfort were assessed before exercise and immediately following each set. RPE was significantly higher in HL-RE compared to all low-load conditions for both exercises after each set (all p<0.05). cBFR-RE resulted in significantly greater RPE than pBFR-RE and LL-RE for both exercises for sets 1-4 for LP and sets 2-3 for KE (all p<0.05). Levels of discomfort were similar between cBFR-RE and HL-RE, which tended to be significantly higher than pBFR-RE and LL-RE (p<0.05). Men reported significantly greater RPE than women following sets 2-4 during KE with cBFR-RE and sets 2 and 3 during KE for HL-RE (all p<0.05). Males also reported significantly greater discomfort than women following sets 2-4 for KE LL-RE (p<0.05). Altogether, these data suggest that pBFR-RE may provide a more favorable BFR condition based on perceptual responses and that perceptual responses may differ between sexes across varying resistance exercise conditions.

The Acute Physiological Responses to Traditional vs. Practical Blood Flow Restriction Resistance Exercise in Untrained Men and Women.

This study compared the acute physiological responses of traditional and practical blood flow restriction resistance exercise (tBFR and pBFR, respectively) and high- and low-load resistance exercise without BFR (HL and LL, respectively), as well as the potential sex differences within the aforementioned exercise methods. Fourteen men and fifteen women randomly completed the following experimental conditions: (1) tBFR, consisting of four sets of 30-15-15-15 repetitions of the bilateral horizontal leg press and knee extension exercises, at 30% of one-repetition maximum (1-RM), with a 13.5 cm wide pneumatic cuff placed at the most proximal portion of each thigh and inflated to a pressure equivalent to 50% of the participant's total occlusion pressure; (2) pBFR, which was the same as the tBFR condition, except that an elastic band wrapped around the proximal portion of each thigh at a tightness of 7 on a 0 to 10 perceived pressure scale was used to reduce blood flow; (3) LL, same as the tBFR and pBFR protocols, except that no BFR was applied; and (4) HL, consisting of 3 sets of 10 repetitions at 80% of 1-RM, with the same 1-min rest interval between sets and a 3-min rest period between exercises. At baseline, immediately post-, 5 min post-, and 15 min post-exercise, whole-blood lactate (WBL), indices of muscle swelling (muscle thickness and thigh circumference), hematocrit and plasma volume changes, were measured as well as superficial electromyography (sEMG) amplitude during exercise. There were no significant (p > 0.05) differences between the tBFR and pBFR exercise protocols for any of the physiological parameters assessed. However, significantly greater (p < 0.05) WBL and sEMG values were observed for HL compared to the remaining exercise conditions. Finally, males displayed greater WBL levels than females at 15 min post-exercise. Interestingly, males also displayed significantly (p < 0.05) greater sEMG amplitude than females within the low-load trials during leg press, but no significant (p < 0.05) sex differences were observed during knee extension. In conclusion, tBFR and pBFR seemed to be capable of inducing the same acute physiological responses. Furthermore, males displayed greater responses than females for some of the physiological parameters measured.

Perceptual responses to continuous versus intermittent blood flow restriction exercise: A randomized controlled trial.

We investigated the perceptual responses to resistance exercise (RE) with continuous and intermittent blood flow restriction (BFR). Fourteen males randomly completed the following exercise conditions: low-load RE with continuous BFR (cBFR), low-load RE with intermittent BFR (iBFR), low-load RE without BFR (LI), and traditional high-load RE (HI). Participants completed 4 sets of 30-15-15-15 repetitions of bilateral leg press and knee extension exercises during the low-load conditions, at 20% of one-repetition maximum (1-RM), a 1.5­sec metronome-controlled pace, with a 1-min rest interval between sets; HI consisted of 4 sets of 10 repetitions of the same exercises, at 70% 1-RM, with the same pace and rest interval. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and discomfort were assessed using psychometric scales before exercise and after each set. RPE displayed no significant differences (p > 0.05) between the BFR conditions for either exercise. Additionally, both BFR conditions elicited significantly (p < 0.05) greater RPE than LI and significantly (p <0.05) lower RPE than HI during both exercises. Rating of discomfort displayed no significant differences between BFR conditions during the first two sets of leg press; however, cBFR evoked greater discomfort compared to iBFR during the last two sets. There were no significant (p > 0.05) differences observed between conditions during the knee extension exercise. Rating of discomfort was similar between the BFR and HI conditions and each were significantly greater than LI during both exercises. Therefore, cBFR and iBFR seem to produce similar perceptual responses, which are greater than LI and lower than HI, but similar in regards to discomfort.