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1.
Nature ; 602(7898): 654-656, 2022 02.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-35016196

ABSTRACT

The emergence of the SARS-CoV-2 variant of concern Omicron (Pango lineage B.1.1.529), first identified in Botswana and South Africa, may compromise vaccine effectiveness and lead to re-infections1. Here we investigated Omicron escape from neutralization by antibodies from South African individuals vaccinated with Pfizer BNT162b2. We used blood samples taken soon after vaccination from individuals who were vaccinated and previously infected with SARS-CoV-2 or vaccinated with no evidence of previous infection. We isolated and sequence-confirmed live Omicron virus from an infected person and observed that Omicron requires the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor to infect cells. We compared plasma neutralization of Omicron relative to an ancestral SARS-CoV-2 strain and found that neutralization of ancestral virus was much higher in infected and vaccinated individuals compared with the vaccinated-only participants. However, both groups showed a 22-fold reduction in vaccine-elicited neutralization by the Omicron variant. Participants who were vaccinated and had previously been infected exhibited residual neutralization of Omicron similar to the level of neutralization of the ancestral virus observed in the vaccination-only group. These data support the notion that reasonable protection against Omicron may be maintained using vaccination approaches.


Subject(s)
Antibodies, Neutralizing/immunology , Antibodies, Viral/immunology , BNT162 Vaccine/immunology , Immune Evasion/immunology , Neutralization Tests , SARS-CoV-2/immunology , Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2/metabolism , Animals , Cell Line , Chlorocebus aethiops , Humans , Mutation , SARS-CoV-2/classification , SARS-CoV-2/genetics , Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus/genetics , Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus/immunology , Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus/metabolism
2.
Nature ; 603(7902): 706-714, 2022 03.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-35104837

ABSTRACT

The SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.1 variant emerged in 20211 and has multiple mutations in its spike protein2. Here we show that the spike protein of Omicron has a higher affinity for ACE2 compared with Delta, and a marked change in its antigenicity increases Omicron's evasion of therapeutic monoclonal and vaccine-elicited polyclonal neutralizing antibodies after two doses. mRNA vaccination as a third vaccine dose rescues and broadens neutralization. Importantly, the antiviral drugs remdesivir and molnupiravir retain efficacy against Omicron BA.1. Replication was similar for Omicron and Delta virus isolates in human nasal epithelial cultures. However, in lung cells and gut cells, Omicron demonstrated lower replication. Omicron spike protein was less efficiently cleaved compared with Delta. The differences in replication were mapped to the entry efficiency of the virus on the basis of spike-pseudotyped virus assays. The defect in entry of Omicron pseudotyped virus to specific cell types effectively correlated with higher cellular RNA expression of TMPRSS2, and deletion of TMPRSS2 affected Delta entry to a greater extent than Omicron. Furthermore, drug inhibitors targeting specific entry pathways3 demonstrated that the Omicron spike inefficiently uses the cellular protease TMPRSS2, which promotes cell entry through plasma membrane fusion, with greater dependency on cell entry through the endocytic pathway. Consistent with suboptimal S1/S2 cleavage and inability to use TMPRSS2, syncytium formation by the Omicron spike was substantially impaired compared with the Delta spike. The less efficient spike cleavage of Omicron at S1/S2 is associated with a shift in cellular tropism away from TMPRSS2-expressing cells, with implications for altered pathogenesis.


Subject(s)
COVID-19/pathology , COVID-19/virology , Membrane Fusion , SARS-CoV-2/metabolism , SARS-CoV-2/pathogenicity , Serine Endopeptidases/metabolism , Virus Internalization , Adult , Aged , Aged, 80 and over , Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2/metabolism , Animals , Antibodies, Neutralizing/immunology , Antibodies, Viral/immunology , COVID-19/immunology , COVID-19 Vaccines/immunology , Cell Line , Cell Membrane/metabolism , Cell Membrane/virology , Chlorocebus aethiops , Convalescence , Female , Humans , Immune Sera/immunology , Intestines/pathology , Intestines/virology , Lung/pathology , Lung/virology , Male , Middle Aged , Mutation , Nasal Mucosa/pathology , Nasal Mucosa/virology , SARS-CoV-2/drug effects , SARS-CoV-2/immunology , Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus/genetics , Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus/metabolism , Tissue Culture Techniques , Virulence , Virus Replication
3.
Nature ; 593(7857): 142-146, 2021 05.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-33780970

ABSTRACT

SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (VOC) have arisen independently at multiple locations1,2 and may reduce the efficacy of current vaccines that target the spike glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-23. Here, using a live-virus neutralization assay, we compared the neutralization of a non-VOC variant with the 501Y.V2 VOC (also known as B.1.351) using plasma collected from adults who were hospitalized with COVID-19 during the two waves of infection in South Africa, the second wave of which was dominated by infections with the 501Y.V2 variant. Sequencing demonstrated that infections of plasma donors from the first wave were with viruses that did not contain the mutations associated with 501Y.V2, except for one infection that contained the E484K substitution in the receptor-binding domain. The 501Y.V2 virus variant was effectively neutralized by plasma from individuals who were infected during the second wave. The first-wave virus variant was effectively neutralized by plasma from first-wave infections. However, the 501Y.V2 variant was poorly cross-neutralized by plasma from individuals with first-wave infections; the efficacy was reduced by 15.1-fold relative to neutralization of 501Y.V2 by plasma from individuals infected in the second wave. By contrast, cross-neutralization of first-wave virus variants using plasma from individuals with second-wave infections was more effective, showing only a 2.3-fold decrease relative to neutralization of first-wave virus variants by plasma from individuals infected in the first wave. Although we tested only one plasma sample from an individual infected with a SARS-CoV-2 variant with only the E484K substitution, this plasma sample potently neutralized both variants. The observed effective neutralization of first-wave virus by plasma from individuals infected with 501Y.V2 provides preliminary evidence that vaccines based on VOC sequences could retain activity against other circulating SARS-CoV-2 lineages.


Subject(s)
Antibodies, Neutralizing/immunology , Antibodies, Viral/immunology , COVID-19/immunology , COVID-19/therapy , COVID-19/virology , Immune Evasion/immunology , Mutation , SARS-CoV-2/immunology , Animals , Antibodies, Neutralizing/biosynthesis , Antibodies, Viral/biosynthesis , COVID-19/epidemiology , Cell Line , Chlorocebus aethiops , Humans , Immune Evasion/genetics , Immunization, Passive , Neutralization Tests , SARS-CoV-2/genetics , South Africa/epidemiology , Time Factors , Vero Cells , COVID-19 Serotherapy
4.
PLoS Pathog ; 12(11): e1005964, 2016 Nov.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-27812216

ABSTRACT

Cell-to-cell spread of HIV, a directed mode of viral transmission, has been observed to be more rapid than cell-free infection. However, a mechanism for earlier onset of viral gene expression in cell-to-cell spread was previously uncharacterized. Here we used time-lapse microscopy combined with automated image analysis to quantify the timing of the onset of HIV gene expression in a fluorescent reporter cell line, as well as single cell staining for infection over time in primary cells. We compared cell-to-cell spread of HIV to cell-free infection, and limited both types of transmission to a two-hour window to minimize differences due to virus transit time to the cell. The mean time to detectable onset of viral gene expression in cell-to-cell spread was accelerated by 19% in the reporter cell line and by 35% in peripheral blood mononuclear cells relative to cell-free HIV infection. Neither factors secreted by infected cells, nor contact with infected cells in the absence of transmission, detectably changed onset. We recapitulated the earlier onset by infecting with multiple cell-free viruses per cell. Surprisingly, the acceleration in onset of viral gene expression was not explained by cooperativity between infecting virions. Instead, more rapid onset was consistent with a model where the fastest expressing virus out of the infecting virus pool sets the time for infection independently of the other co-infecting viruses.


Subject(s)
Gene Expression Regulation, Viral/physiology , HIV Infections/genetics , HIV Infections/transmission , HIV Infections/virology , HIV-1/genetics , Cells, Cultured , Flow Cytometry , Humans , Time-Lapse Imaging
5.
Virus Evol ; 10(1): vead075, 2024.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-38361824

ABSTRACT

One mechanism of variant formation may be evolution during long-term infection in immunosuppressed people. To understand the viral phenotypes evolved during such infection, we tested SARS-CoV-2 viruses evolved from an ancestral B.1 lineage infection lasting over 190 days post-diagnosis in an advanced HIV disease immunosuppressed individual. Sequence and phylogenetic analysis showed two evolving sub-lineages, with the second sub-lineage replacing the first sub-lineage in a seeming evolutionary sweep. Each sub-lineage independently evolved escape from neutralizing antibodies. The most evolved virus for the first sub-lineage (isolated day 34) and the second sub-lineage (isolated day 190) showed similar escape from ancestral SARS-CoV-2 and Delta-variant infection elicited neutralizing immunity despite having no spike mutations in common relative to the B.1 lineage. The day 190 isolate also evolved higher cell-cell fusion and faster viral replication and caused more cell death relative to virus isolated soon after diagnosis, though cell death was similar to day 34 first sub-lineage virus. These data show that SARS-CoV-2 strains in prolonged infection in a single individual can follow independent evolutionary trajectories which lead to neutralization escape and other changes in viral properties.

6.
Nat Commun ; 14(1): 8078, 2023 Dec 06.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-38057313

ABSTRACT

Omicron BA.2.86 subvariant differs from Omicron BA.2 as well as recently circulating variants by over 30 mutations in the spike protein alone. Here we report on the isolation of the live BA.2.86 subvariant from a diagnostic swab collected in South Africa which we tested for escape from neutralizing antibodies and viral replication properties in cell culture. We found that BA.2.86 does not have significantly more escape relative to Omicron XBB.1.5 from neutralizing immunity elicited by either Omicron XBB-family subvariant infection or from residual neutralizing immunity of recently collected sera from the South African population. BA.2.86 does have extensive escape relative to ancestral virus with the D614G substitution (B.1 lineage) when neutralized by sera from pre-Omicron vaccinated individuals and relative to Omicron BA.1 when neutralized by sera from Omicron BA.1 infected individuals. BA.2.86 and XBB.1.5 show similar viral infection dynamics in the VeroE6-TMPRSS2 and H1299-ACE2 cell lines. We also investigate the relationship of BA.2.86 to BA.2 sequences. The closest BA.2 sequences are BA.2 samples from Southern Africa circulating in early 2022. Similarly, many basal BA.2.86 sequences were sampled in Southern Africa. This suggests that BA.2.86 potentially evolved in this region, and that unobserved evolution led to escape from neutralizing antibodies similar in scale to recently circulating strains of SARS-CoV-2.


Subject(s)
COVID-19 , SARS-CoV-2 , Humans , Africa, Southern , Antibodies, Neutralizing , Antibodies, Viral , COVID-19/virology , SARS-CoV-2/genetics
7.
medRxiv ; 2022 Nov 30.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-36451879

ABSTRACT

The milder clinical manifestations of Omicron infection relative to pre-Omicron SARS CoV-2 raises the possibility that extensive evolution results in reduced pathogenicity. To test this hypothesis, we quantified induction of cell fusion and cell death in SARS CoV-2 evolved from ancestral virus during long-term infection. Both cell fusion and death were reduced in Omicron BA.1 infection relative to ancestral virus. Evolved virus was isolated at different times during a 6-month infection in an immunosuppressed individual with advanced HIV disease. The virus isolated 16 days post-reported symptom onset induced fusogenicity and cell death at levels similar to BA.1. However, fusogenicity was increased in virus isolated at 6 months post-symptoms to levels intermediate between BA.1 and ancestral SARS-CoV-2. Similarly, infected cell death showed a graded increase from earlier to later isolates. These results may indicate that, at least by the cellular measures used here, evolution in long-term infection does not necessarily attenuate the virus.

8.
medRxiv ; 2021 Dec 17.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-34909788

ABSTRACT

The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron, first identified in Botswana and South Africa, may compromise vaccine effectiveness and the ability of antibodies triggered by previous infection to protect against re-infection (1). Here we investigated whether Omicron escapes antibody neutralization in South Africans, either previously SARS-CoV-2 infected or uninfected, who were vaccinated with Pfizer BNT162b2. We also investigated if Omicron requires the ACE2 receptor to infect cells. We isolated and sequence confirmed live Omicron virus from an infected person in South Africa and compared plasma neutralization of this virus relative to an ancestral SARS-CoV-2 strain with the D614G mutation, observing that Omicron still required ACE2 to infect. For neutralization, blood samples were taken soon after vaccination, so that vaccine elicited neutralization was close to peak. Neutralization capacity of the D614G virus was much higher in infected and vaccinated versus vaccinated only participants but both groups had 22-fold Omicron escape from vaccine elicited neutralization. Previously infected and vaccinated individuals had residual neutralization predicted to confer 73% protection from symptomatic Omicron infection, while those without previous infection were predicted to retain only about 35%. Both groups were predicted to have substantial protection from severe disease. These data support the notion that high neutralization capacity elicited by a combination of infection and vaccination, and possibly boosting, could maintain reasonable effectiveness against Omicron. A waning neutralization response is likely to decrease vaccine effectiveness below these estimates. However, since protection from severe disease requires lower neutralization levels and involves T cell immunity, such protection may be maintained.

9.
Mol Biochem Parasitol ; 223: 50-54, 2018 07.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-29990512

ABSTRACT

African animal trypanosomosis (nagana) is caused by tsetse-transmitted protozoan parasites. Their cysteine proteases are potential chemotherapeutic and diagnostic targets. The N-glycosylated catalytic domain of Trypanosoma vivax cathepsin L-like cysteine protease, rTviCATLcat, was recombinantly expressed and purified from culture supernatants while native TviCATL was purified from T. vivax Y486 parasite lysates. Typical of Clan CA, family C1 proteases, TviCATL activity is sensitive to E-64 and cystatin and substrate specificity is defined by the S2 pocket. Leucine was preferred in P2 and basic and non-bulky, hydrophobic residues accepted in P1 and P3 respectively. Reversible aldehyde inhibitors, antipain, chymostatin and leupeptin, with Arg in P1 and irreversible peptidyl chloromethylketone inhibitors with hydrophobic residues in P2 inhibited TviCATL activity. TviCATL digested host proteins: bovine haemoglobin, serum albumin, fibrinogen and denatured collagen (gelatine) over a wide pH range, including neutral to slightly acidic pH. The recombinant catalytic domain of TviCATL showed promise as a diagnostic target for detecting T. vivax infection in cattle in an indirect antibody detection ELISA.


Subject(s)
Cattle Diseases/diagnosis , Cysteine Proteases/metabolism , Immunoassay/methods , Recombinant Proteins/metabolism , Trypanosoma vivax/enzymology , Trypanosomiasis, African/diagnosis , Animals , Binding Sites , Cattle , Cysteine Proteases/genetics , Cysteine Proteases/immunology , DNA Mutational Analysis , Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay/methods , Hydrogen-Ion Concentration , Recombinant Proteins/genetics , Recombinant Proteins/immunology , Substrate Specificity , Trypanosoma vivax/genetics , Trypanosoma vivax/immunology , Trypanosomiasis, African/veterinary
10.
Elife ; 72018 03 20.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-29555018

ABSTRACT

HIV has been reported to be cytotoxic in vitro and in lymph node infection models. Using a computational approach, we found that partial inhibition of transmissions of multiple virions per cell could lead to increased numbers of live infected cells. If the number of viral DNA copies remains above one after inhibition, then eliminating the surplus viral copies reduces cell death. Using a cell line, we observed increased numbers of live infected cells when infection was partially inhibited with the antiretroviral efavirenz or neutralizing antibody. We then used efavirenz at concentrations reported in lymph nodes to inhibit lymph node infection by partially resistant HIV mutants. We observed more live infected lymph node cells, but with fewer HIV DNA copies per cell, relative to no drug. Hence, counterintuitively, limited attenuation of HIV transmission per cell may increase live infected cell numbers in environments where the force of infection is high.


Subject(s)
Benzoxazines/pharmacology , HIV-1/drug effects , Lymph Nodes/drug effects , Virus Replication/drug effects , Algorithms , Alkynes , CD4 Lymphocyte Count , CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/drug effects , CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/virology , Cell Death/drug effects , Cell Line, Tumor , Cells, Cultured , Cyclopropanes , HIV Infections/transmission , HIV Infections/virology , HIV-1/genetics , HIV-1/physiology , Host-Pathogen Interactions/drug effects , Humans , Lymph Nodes/virology , Models, Theoretical , Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors/pharmacology , Virus Replication/genetics
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