Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis: A disorder of T cell activation, immune regulation, and distinctive immunopathology.

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a disorder that has been recognized since the middle of the last century. In recent decades, increasing understanding of the genetic roots and pathophysiology of HLH has led to improved diagnosis and treatment of this once universally fatal disorder. HLH is best conceptualized as a maladaptive state of excessive T cell activation driving life-threatening myeloid cell activation, largely via interferon-gamma (IFN-γ). In familial forms of HLH (F-HLH), inherited defects of lymphocyte cytotoxic biology underlie excessive T cell activation, demonstrating the importance of the perforin/granzyme pathway as a negative feedback loop limiting acute T cell activation in response to environmental factors. HLH occurring in other contexts and without apparent inherited genetic predisposition remains poorly understood, though it may share some downstream aspects of pathophysiology including excessive IFN-γ action and activation of innate immune effectors. Iatrogenic forms of HLH occurring after immune-activating therapies for cancer are providing new insights into the potential toxicities of inadequately controlled T cell activation. Diagnosing HLH increasingly relies on context-specific measures of T cell activation, IFN-γ activity, and inflammation. Treatment of HLH largely relies on cytotoxic chemotherapy, though targeted therapies against T cells, IFN-γ, and other cytokines are increasingly utilized.

Diagnostic Guidelines for Familial Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis Revisited.

Current HLH-2004-based diagnostic criteria for familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (FHL) are based on expert opinion. Here we performed a case-control study to test and possibly improve these clinical criteria. We also developed two complementary expert opinion-based diagnostic strategies for FHL in patients with signs/symptoms suggestive of HLH, based on genetic and cellular cytotoxicity assays. The cases (n=366) were children <16 years with verified familial and/or genetic FHL (n=341) or Griscelli syndrome type 2 (GS2) (n=25); 276 from the HLH-94/HLH-2004 databases and 90 from the Italian HLH Registry. All fulfilled the HLH-94/HLH-2004 patient inclusion criteria. Controls were 374 children with systemic-onset juvenile idiopathic arthritis (sJIA) and 329+361 children in two cohorts with febrile infections that could be confused with HLH and sepsis, respectively. To provide complete data sets, multiple imputations were performed. The optimal model, based on the number of diagnostic criteria fulfilled from 17 variables studied, reveled almost similar diagnostic thresholds as the existing criteria, with accuracy 99.1% (sensitivity 97.1%; specificity 99.5%). Notably, assessment of the original HLH-2004 criteria revealed accuracy 97.4% (sensitivity 99.0%; specificity 97.1%). Since cellular cytotoxicity assays here constitute a separate diagnostic strategy, HLH-2004 criteria without NK-cell function was also studied which showed accuracy 99.0% (sensitivity 96.2%; specificity 99.5%). Thus, we conclude that the HLH-2004 criteria (without NK-cell function) have significant validity in their current form when tested against severe infections or sJIA. It is important to exclude underlying malignancies and atypical infections. In addition, complementary cellular and genetic diagnostic guidelines can facilitate necessary confirmation of clinical diagnosis.

Quercetin ameliorates XIAP deficiency-associated hyperinflammation.

XIAP (X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis) deficiency is a rare inborn error of immunity. XIAP deficiency causes hyperinflammatory disease manifestations due to dysregulated TNF (tumor necrosis factor)-receptor signaling and NLRP3 (NOD- [nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain], LRR- [leucine-rich repeat] and pyrin domain-containing protein 3) inflammasome function. Safe and effective long-term treatments are needed and are especially important to help prevent the need for high-risk allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation. Here we evaluated inflammasome inhibitors as potential therapeutics with a focus on the natural flavonoid antioxidant quercetin. Bone marrow (BM)-derived macrophages were derived from XIAP-deficient or wild-type (WT) mice. Human monocytes were obtained from control or XIAP-deficient patients. Cells were stimulated with TLR (Toll-like receptor) agonists or TNF-α ± inhibitors or quercetin. For in vivo lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge experiments, XIAP-deficient or WT mice were fed mouse chow ± supplemental quercetin (50 mg/kg per day exposure) for 7 days followed by a challenge with 10 ng/kg LPS. IL-1ß (interleukin-1ß) and IL-18 were measured by ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay). In murine studies, quercetin prevented IL-1ß secretion from XIAP knockout cells following TLR agonists or TNF-α stimulation (P < .05) and strongly reduced constitutive production of IL-18 by both WT and XIAP-deficient cells (P < .05). At 4 hours after in vivo LPS challenge, blood levels of IL-1ß and IL-18 were significantly decreased in mice that had received quercetin-supplemented chow (P < .05). In experiments using human cells, quercetin greatly reduced IL-1ß secretion by monocytes following TNF-α stimulation (P < .05). Our data suggest that quercetin may be an effective natural therapeutic for the prevention of XIAP deficiency-associated hyperinflammation. Clinical trials, including careful pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies to ensure that effective levels of quercetin can be obtained, are warranted.

An improved index for diagnosis and mortality prediction in malignancy-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis.

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a life-threatening inflammatory syndrome that may complicate hematologic malignancies (HMs). The appropriateness of current criteria for diagnosing HLH in the context of HMs is unknown because they were developed for children with familial HLH (HLH-2004) or derived from adult patient cohorts in which HMs were underrepresented (HScore). Moreover, many features of these criteria may directly reflect the underlying HM rather than an abnormal inflammatory state. To improve and potentially simplify HLH diagnosis in patients with HMs, we studied an international cohort of 225 adult patients with various HMs both with and without HLH and for whom HLH-2004 criteria were available. Classification and regression tree and receiver-operating curve analyses were used to identify the most useful diagnostic and prognostic parameters and to optimize laboratory cutoff values. Combined elevation of soluble CD25 (>3900 U/mL) and ferritin (>1000 ng/mL) best identified HLH-2004-defining features (sensitivity, 84%; specificity, 81%). Moreover, this combination, which we term the optimized HLH inflammatory (OHI) index, was highly predictive of mortality (hazard ratio, 4.3; 95% confidence interval, 3.0-6.2) across diverse HMs. Furthermore, the OHI index identified a large group of patients with high mortality risk who were not defined as having HLH according to HLH-2004/HScore. Finally, the OHI index shows diagnostic and prognostic value when used for routine surveillance of patients with newly diagnosed HMs as well as those with clinically suspected HLH. Thus, we conclude that the OHI index identifies patients with HM and an inflammatory state associated with a high mortality risk and warrants further prospective validation.

Exposure-safety relationship for patients with primary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis treated with emapalumab.

Primary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (pHLH) is an immune-mediated, hyperinflammatory disorder. Interferon-γ (IFNγ) plays a key role in the pathophysiology of pHLH. Emapalumab, a fully human, anti-IFNγ monoclonal antibody neutralizes both free and receptor-bound IFNγ. However, inhibiting IFNγ-mediated signaling could result in immune dysfunction and immunosuppression. This exploratory exposure-safety analysis investigated the relationship between emapalumab and the incidence of adverse events in patients with pHLH. Increased exposure to emapalumab was not associated with an increased predicted risk of severe adverse events, infection, or infusion-related reactions. Emapalumab was associated with a favorable and manageable safety profile across all assessed doses and treatment durations.

Emapalumab in Children with Primary Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis.

BACKGROUND: Primary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis is a rare syndrome characterized by immune dysregulation and hyperinflammation. It typically manifests in infancy and is associated with high mortality. METHODS: We investigated the efficacy and safety of emapalumab (a human anti-interferon-γ antibody), administered with dexamethasone, in an open-label, single-group, phase 2-3 study involving patients who had received conventional therapy before enrollment (previously treated patients) and previously untreated patients who were 18 years of age or younger and had primary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. The patients could enter a long-term follow-up study until 1 year after allogeneic hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation or until 1 year after the last dose of emapalumab, if transplantation was not performed. The planned 8-week treatment period could be shortened or extended if needed according to the timing of transplantation. The primary efficacy end point was the overall response, which was assessed in the previously treated patients according to objective clinical and laboratory criteria. RESULTS: At the cutoff date of July 20, 2017, a total of 34 patients (27 previously treated patients and 7 previously untreated patients) had received emapalumab; 26 patients completed the study. A total of 63% of the previously treated patients and 65% of the patients who received an emapalumab infusion had a response; these percentages were significantly higher than the prespecified null hypothesis of 40% (P = 0.02 and P = 0.005, respectively). In the previously treated group, 70% of the patients were able to proceed to transplantation, as were 65% of the patients who received emapalumab. At the last observation, 74% of the previously treated patients and 71% of the patients who received emapalumab were alive. Emapalumab was not associated with any organ toxicity. Severe infections developed in 10 patients during emapalumab treatment. Emapalumab was discontinued in 1 patient because of disseminated histoplasmosis. CONCLUSIONS: Emapalumab was an efficacious targeted therapy for patients with primary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. (Funded by NovImmune and the European Commission; NI-0501-04 and NI-0501-05 ClinicalTrials.gov numbers, NCT01818492 and NCT02069899.).

The 2022 EULAR/ACR points to consider at the early stages of diagnosis and management of suspected haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis/macrophage activation syndrome (HLH/MAS).

OBJECTIVE: Haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) and macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) are life-threatening systemic hyperinflammatory syndromes that can develop in most inflammatory contexts. They can progress rapidly, and early identification and management are critical for preventing organ failure and mortality. This effort aimed to develop evidence-based and consensus-based points to consider to assist clinicians in optimising decision-making in the early stages of diagnosis, treatment and monitoring of HLH/MAS. METHODS: A multinational, multidisciplinary task force of physician experts, including adult and paediatric rheumatologists, haematologist/oncologists, immunologists, infectious disease specialists, intensivists, allied healthcare professionals and patients/parents, formulated relevant research questions and conducted a systematic literature review (SLR). Delphi methodology, informed by SLR results and questionnaires of experts, was used to generate statements aimed at assisting early decision-making and optimising the initial care of patients with HLH/MAS. RESULTS: The task force developed 6 overarching statements and 24 specific points to consider relevant to early recognition of HLH/MAS, diagnostic approaches, initial management and monitoring of HLH/MAS. Major themes included the simultaneous need for prompt syndrome recognition, systematic evaluation of underlying contributors, early intervention targeting both hyperinflammation and likely contributors, careful monitoring for progression/complications and expert multidisciplinary assistance. CONCLUSION: These 2022 EULAR/American College of Rheumatology points to consider provide up-to-date guidance, based on the best available published data and expert opinion. They are meant to help guide the initial evaluation, management and monitoring of patients with HLH/MAS in order to halt disease progression and prevent life-threatening immunopathology.

JAK inhibition for murine HLH requires complete blockade of IFN-γ signaling and is limited by toxicity of JAK2 inhibition.

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is an inflammatory disorder in which numerous cytokines are elevated, though interferon-γ (IFN-γ) is central to disease pathogenesis and a key therapeutic target. Experimental and early clinical reports have shown that ruxolitinib, a small molecule inhibitor of Janus kinases (JAKs), which are essential for cytokine signaling, may be therapeutic in HLH. In contrast, we found that intermittently administered ruxolitinib at various dose levels failed to prevent HLH development or treat established murine HLH. High doses of ruxolitinib blocked IFN-γ signaling only transiently after administration, consistent with human pharmacokinetics, and only continuously administered drug could prevent HLH development or treat established HLH. Continuously administered ruxolitinib was therapeutic in only a narrow dose range and intermittently dosed ruxolitinib worsened survival and decreased bone marrow cellularity of animals concurrently treated with anti-IFN-γ antibody, indicating a narrow therapeutic window and potential toxicity. Because JAK2 is essential for hematopoietic cytokine signaling, we also tested a JAK1-selective inhibitor and observed therapeutic benefit without apparent toxicity, though it did not improve survival when combined with anti-IFN-γ. We conclude that continuous blockade of IFN-γ signaling is necessary for optimal control of HLH and that JAK2 inhibition may be toxic in this disorder.

T-cell activation profiles distinguish hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis and early sepsis.

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a fatal disorder of immune hyperactivation that has been described as a cytokine storm. Sepsis due to known or suspected infection has also been viewed as a cytokine storm. Although clinical similarities between these syndromes suggest similar immunopathology and may create diagnostic uncertainty, distinguishing them is critical as treatments are widely divergent. We examined T-cell profiles from children with either HLH or sepsis and found that HLH is characterized by acute T-cell activation, in clear contrast to sepsis. Activated T cells in patients with HLH were characterized as CD38high/HLA-DR+ effector cells, with activation of CD8+ T cells being most pronounced. Activated T cells were type 1 polarized, proliferative, and displayed evidence of recent and persistent activation. Circulating activated T cells appeared to be broadly characteristic of HLH, as they were seen in children with and without genetic lesions or identifiable infections and resolved with conventional treatment of HLH. Furthermore, we observed even greater activation and type 1 polarization in tissue-infiltrating T cells, described here for the first time in a series of patients with HLH. Finally, we observed that a threshold of >7% CD38high/HLA-DR+ cells among CD8+ T cells had strong positive and negative predictive value for distinguishing HLH from early sepsis or healthy controls. We conclude that the cytokine storm of HLH is marked by distinctive T-cell activation whereas early sepsis is not, and that these 2 syndromes can be readily distinguished by T-cell phenotypes.

Reduced-Intensity/Reduced-Toxicity Conditioning Approaches Are Tolerated in XIAP Deficiency but Patients Fare Poorly with Acute GVHD.

X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP) deficiency is an inherited primary immunodeficiency characterized by chronic inflammasome overactivity and associated with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) with fully myeloablative conditioning may be curative but has been associated with poor outcomes. Reports of reduced-intensity conditioning (RIC) and reduced-toxicity conditioning (RTC) regimens suggest these approaches are well tolerated, but outcomes are not well established. Retrospective data were collected from an international cohort of 40 patients with XIAP deficiency who underwent HCT with RIC or RTC. Thirty-three (83%) patients had a history of HLH, and thirteen (33%) patients had IBD. Median age at HCT was 6.5 years. Grafts were from HLA-matched (n = 30, 75%) and HLA-mismatched (n = 10, 25%) donors. There were no cases of primary graft failure. Two (5%) patients experienced secondary graft failure, and three (8%) patients ultimately received a second HCT. Nine (23%) patients developed grade II-IV acute GVHD, and 3 (8%) developed extensive chronic GVHD. The estimated 2-year overall and event-free survival rates were 74% (CI 55-86%) and 64% (CI 46-77%), respectively. Recipient and donor HLA mismatch and grade II-IV acute GVHD were negatively associated with survival on multivariate analysis with hazard ratios of 5.8 (CI 1.5-23.3, p = 0.01) and 8.2 (CI 2.1-32.7, p < 0.01), respectively. These data suggest that XIAP patients tolerate RIC and RTC with survival rates similar to HCT of other genetic HLH disorders. Every effort should be made to prevent acute GVHD in XIAP-deficient patients who undergo allogeneic HCT.

Consensus-Based Guidelines for the Recognition, Diagnosis, and Management of Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis in Critically Ill Children and Adults.

OBJECTIVE: Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis is a hyperinflammatory syndrome that often requires critical care support and remains difficult to diagnose. These guidelines are meant to aid in the early recognition, diagnosis, supportive care, and treatment of patients with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in ICUs. DATA SOURCES: The literature searches were performed with PubMed (MEDLINE). STUDY SELECTION: Keywords and medical subject headings terms for literature search included "macrophage activation syndrome," hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis," and "hemophagocytic syndrome." DATA EXTRACTION: The Histiocyte Society developed these consensus recommendations on the basis of published reports and expert opinions with level of evidence provided for each recommendation. They were endorsed by the Society of Critical Care Medicine. DATA SYNTHESIS: Testing for hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis should be initiated promptly in all patients admitted to ICUs with an unexplained or disproportionate inflammatory response, especially those with rapid clinical deterioration. Meeting five or more of eight hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis 2004 diagnostic criteria serves as a valuable diagnostic tool for hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Early aggressive critical care interventions are often required to manage the multisystem organ failure associated with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Thorough investigation of the underlying triggers of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, including infections, malignancies, and autoimmune/autoinflammatory diseases, is essential. Early steroid treatment is indicated for patients with familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis and is often valuable in patients with acquired hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (i.e., secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis) without previous therapy, including macrophage activation syndrome (hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis secondary to autoimmune/autoinflammatory disease) without persistent or relapsing disease. Steroid treatment should not be delayed, particularly if organ dysfunction is present. In patients with macrophage activation syndrome, whose disease does not sufficiently respond, interleukin-1 inhibition and/or cyclosporine A is recommended. In familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis and severe, persistent, or relapsing secondary macrophage activation syndrome, the addition of prompt individualized, age-adjusted etoposide treatment is recommended. CONCLUSIONS: Further studies are needed to determine optimal treatment for patients with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in ICUs, including the use of novel and adjunct therapies.

A Case of Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Complicated by Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis: Identifying the Aberrant Immune Response.

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a life-threatening hyperinflammatory syndrome that may complicate hematologic malignancies. HLH and malignancies have common clinical features, and HLH diagnostic criteria (HLH-2004/Hscore) were not validated in this specific population. We describe a case of a 72-year-old patient with a history of chronic lymphocytic leukemia stable for over 10 years who presented with fever and cytopenia. After excluding infectious etiologies and the progression of her disease, HLH was diagnosed. The patient was treated with etoposide, dexamethasone, intravenous immunoglobulin, and rituximab. Despite initial clinical improvement, the patient deteriorated and developed pulmonary aspergillosis and CNS involvement that reflected uncontrolled HLH. The patient died 45 days after her presentation. An unusual feature of this case was that HLH was not triggered by infection, disease transformation, or treatment. This case emphasizes the challenges of differentiating the development of overwhelming HLH from other complications associated with hematologic malignancy.

Emapalumab in primary haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis and the pathogenic role of interferon gamma: A pharmacometric model-based approach.

AIM: Primary haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a rare, life-threatening, hyperinflammatory syndrome generally occurring in early childhood. The monoclonal antibody emapalumab binds and neutralises interferon γ (IFNγ). This study aimed to determine an emapalumab dosing regimen when traditional dose-finding approaches are not applicable, using pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic analyses to further clarify HLH pathogenesis and confirm IFNγ neutralisation as the relevant therapeutic target in pHLH. METHODS: Initial emapalumab dosing (1 mg/kg) for pHLH patients participating in a pivotal multicentre, open-label, single-arm, phase 2/3 study was based on anticipated IFNγ levels and allometrically scaled pharmacokinetic parameters estimated in healthy volunteers. Emapalumab dosing was adjusted based on estimated IFNγ-mediated clearance and HLH clinical and laboratory criteria. Frequent dosing and emapalumab dose adaptation were used to account for highly variable IFNγ levels and potential target-mediated drug disposition. RESULTS: High inter- and intra-individual variability in IFNγ production (assessed by total IFNγ levels, range: 102 -106  pg/mL) was observed in pHLH patients. Administering emapalumab reduced IFNγ activity, resulting in significant improvements in clinical and laboratory parameters and a reduced risk of adverse events, mainly related to pHLH. Modelled outcomes supported dose titration starting from 1 mg/kg, with possible increases to 3, 6 or 10 mg/kg based on re-evaluation of parameters of disease activity every 3 days. CONCLUSIONS: The variable and unanticipated extremely high IFNγ concentrations in patients with pHLH are reflected in parameters of disease activity. Improved outcomes can be achieved by neutralising IFNγ using frequent emapalumab dosing and dose adaptation guided by clinical and laboratory observations.

Experience with a Reduced Toxicity Allogeneic Transplant Regimen for Non-CGD Primary Immune Deficiencies Requiring Myeloablation.

PURPOSE: A need exists for reduced toxicity conditioning regimens that offer less toxicity while maintaining myeloablation, especially for primary immune deficiencies where myeloablation or high donor myeloid chimerism is required to achieve cure. We adapted a busulfan and fludarabine regimen by Gungor et al. for children and young adults undergoing allogeneic HCT for non-CGD primary immune deficiencies requiring myeloablation or high donor myeloid chimerism, and herein report our experience. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed records of 41 consecutive patients who underwent allogeneic HCT for Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome (n = 12), primary HLH/XLP (n = 10), CD40L deficiency (n = 7), or other (n = 12) primary immune deficiencies with a conditioning regimen containing pharmacokinetic-guided busulfan dosing which achieved a cumulative AUC between 57 and 74 mg/L × h (65-80% of conventional myeloablative exposure), along with fludarabine and alemtuzumab or anti-thymocyte globulin at 3 transplant centers between 2014 and 2019. RESULTS: Forty-one patients underwent a first (n = 33) or second (n = 8) allogeneic HCT. Median age was 2.3 years (range, 0.3 years-19.8 years). All but one patient (97.5%) achieved neutrophil recovery at a median of 14 days (range, 11-34 days). One patient developed sinusoidal obstruction syndrome and two patients developed diffuse alveolar hemorrhage. Four patients developed grades II-IV acute GVHD. Three patients developed chronic GVHD. One-year overall survival was 90% (95% confidence interval [CI] 81-99%) and event-free survival was 83% (95% CI 71-94%). CONCLUSIONS: Our experience suggests that a reduced toxicity busulfan-fludarabine regimen offers low toxicity, low incidence of grades 2-4 GVHD, durable myeloid engraftment, and excellent survival, and may be considered for a variety of primary immune deficiencies where myeloablative HCT is desired.

Recommendations for the management of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in adults.

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a severe hyperinflammatory syndrome induced by aberrantly activated macrophages and cytotoxic T cells. The primary (genetic) form, caused by mutations affecting lymphocyte cytotoxicity and immune regulation, is most common in children, whereas the secondary (acquired) form is most frequent in adults. Secondary HLH is commonly triggered by infections or malignancies but may also be induced by autoinflammatory/autoimmune disorders, in which case it is called macrophage activation syndrome (MAS; or MAS-HLH). Most information on the diagnosis and treatment of HLH comes from the pediatric literature. Although helpful in some adult cases, this raises several challenges. For example, the HLH-2004 diagnostic criteria developed for children are commonly applied but are not validated for adults. Another challenge in HLH diagnosis is that patients may present with a phenotype indistinguishable from sepsis or multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Treatment algorithms targeting hyperinflammation are frequently based on pediatric protocols, such as HLH-94 and HLH-2004, which may result in overtreatment and unnecessary toxicity in adults. Therefore, dose reductions, individualized tailoring of treatment duration, and an age-dependent modified diagnostic approach are to be considered. Here, we present expert opinions derived from an interdisciplinary working group on adult HLH, sponsored by the Histiocyte Society, to facilitate knowledge transfer between physicians caring for pediatric and adult patients with HLH, with the aim to improve the outcome for adult patients affected by HLH.

α4ß7 Integrin expression and blockade in pediatric and young adult gastrointestinal graft-versus-host disease.

BACKGROUND: We hypothesized that α4ß7 integrin expression on effector memory T cells (TEMs) would be elevated in pediatric hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) patients before and at diagnosis of acute gastrointestinal graft-versus-host disease (GI GVHD) symptoms compared to patients without GVHD, and that clinical blockade of α4ß7 integrin with vedolizumab would be effective in pediatric GI GVHD. METHODS: We analyzed surface expression of α4ß7 integrin on T cells from 48 pediatric allogeneic HSCT recipients from our biorepository with known clinical outcomes as follows: acute GI GVHD (n = 22), isolated skin GVHD (n = 12), and no GVHD (n = 14). T-cell analyses were performed 1 week before and at GVHD diagnosis in patients with GVHD, and day +30 after HSCT in patients without GVHD. We describe clinical outcomes of seven additional patients, different from above-described 48 patients, who received vedolizumab (anti-α4ß7 integrin antibody) for the treatment of steroid-refractory acute GI GVHD. RESULTS: Expression of α4ß7 integrin on CD8+ TEMs was upregulated in patients with GI GVHD compared to the no GI GVHD (skin GVHD + no GVHD) group 1 week prior to clinical symptoms (p = .02) and at acute GI GVHD diagnosis (p = .05). Four of seven treated patients with clinical steroid-refractory acute GI GVHD were evaluable for response to vedolizumab. One patient had a complete response at day +28, while two had a partial response, and one had no response. No adverse effects directly attributable to vedolizumab were observed. CONCLUSION: Our data suggest a rationale for the blockade of α4ß7 integrin for acute GI GVHD management in children.

TNF-Mediated Compensatory Immunity to Mycobacterium avium in the Absence of Macrophage Activation by IFN-γ.

Granuloma formation is a hallmark of several infectious diseases, including those caused by Mycobacterium sp These structures are composed of accumulations of inflammatory cells, and it has been shown that cytokines such as IFN-γ and TNF-α are required for granuloma assembly during M. avium infections in mice. Macrophages (MΦs) insensitive to IFN-γ (MIIG) mice have MΦs, monocytes, and dendritic cells that are unresponsive to IFN-γ. We observed that although IFN-γ-/- mice present an exacerbated infection, the same is not true for MIIG animals, where the same levels of protection as the wild-type animals were observed in the liver and partial protection in the spleen. Unlike IFN-γ-/- mice, MIIG mice still develop well-defined granulomas, suggesting that IFN-γ-mediated MΦ activation is not required for granuloma assembly. This work also shows that MIIG animals exhibit increased cell recruitment with higher CD4+ T cells numbers as well as increased IFN-γ and TNF-α expression, suggesting that TNF-α may have a role in protection and may compensate the lack of MΦ response to IFN-γ in the MIIG model. TNF-α-deficient MIIG mice (MIIG.TNF-α-/-) exhibited increased bacterial burdens when compared with MIIG mice. These results suggest that in the absence of IFN-γ signaling in MΦs, TNF-α has a protective role against M. avium.

Genotype and functional correlates of disease phenotype in deficiency of adenosine deaminase 2 (DADA2).

BACKGROUND: Deficiency of adenosine deaminase 2 (DADA2) is a syndrome with pleiotropic manifestations including vasculitis and hematologic compromise. A systematic definition of the relationship between adenosine deaminase 2 (ADA2) mutations and clinical phenotype remains unavailable. OBJECTIVE: We sought to test whether the impact of ADA2 mutations on enzyme function correlates with clinical presentation. METHODS: Patients with DADA2 with severe hematologic manifestations were compared with vasculitis-predominant patients. Enzymatic activity was assessed using expression constructs reflecting all 53 missense, nonsense, insertion, and deletion genotypes from 152 patients across the DADA2 spectrum. RESULTS: We identified patients with DADA2 presenting with pure red cell aplasia (n = 5) or bone marrow failure (BMF, n = 10) syndrome. Most patients did not exhibit features of vasculitis. Recurrent infection, hepatosplenomegaly, and gingivitis were common in patients with BMF, of whom half died from infection. Unlike patients with DADA2 with vasculitis, patients with pure red cell aplasia and BMF proved largely refractory to TNF inhibitors. ADA2 variants associated with vasculitis predominantly reflected missense mutations with at least 3% residual enzymatic activity. In contrast, pure red cell aplasia and BMF were associated with missense mutations with minimal residual enzyme activity, nonsense variants, and insertions/deletions resulting in complete loss of function. CONCLUSIONS: Functional interrogation of ADA2 mutations reveals an association of subtotal function loss with vasculitis, typically responsive to TNF blockade, whereas more extensive loss is observed in hematologic disease, which may be refractory to treatment. These findings establish a genotype-phenotype spectrum in DADA2.

Dying to protect: cell death and the control of T-cell homeostasis.

T cells play a critical role in immune responses as they specifically recognize peptide/MHC complexes with their T-cell receptors and initiate adaptive immune responses. While T cells are critical for performing appropriate effector functions and maintaining immune memory, they also can cause autoimmunity or neoplasia if misdirected or dysregulated. Thus, T cells must be tightly regulated from their development onward. Maintenance of appropriate T-cell homeostasis is essential to promote protective immunity and limit autoimmunity and neoplasia. This review will focus on the role of cell death in maintenance of T-cell homeostasis and outline novel therapeutic strategies tailored to manipulate cell death to limit T-cell survival (eg, autoimmunity and transplantation) or enhance T-cell survival (eg, vaccination and immune deficiency).

CD38brightCD8+ T Cells Associated with the Development of Acute GVHD Are Activated, Proliferating, and Cytotoxic Trafficking Cells.

We have previously reported that a peripheral blood absolute CD38brightCD8+ effector memory T cell (TEM) population expansion of >35 cells/µL predicts the development of acute graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). We hypothesized that these T cells are activated, proliferating, and cytotoxic trafficking cells that are not a response to viral reactivation and may be involved in acute GVHD. We characterized peripheral blood T cell populations at the time of maximum CD38brightCD8+ TEM expansion in patients from our originally reported pediatric allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation recipient cohort. Samples were incubated with fluorochrome-conjugated antibodies directed against CD3, CD8, CD38, HLA-DR (T cell activation), Ki-67 (T cell proliferation), granzyme B (marker of cytotoxic T cells), CLA (skin trafficking), CCR5 (visceral trafficking), and CXCR6 (liver trafficking). We also incubated samples with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and cytomegalovirus (CMV) peptide pools and measured IFN-γ production by flow cytometry and performed EBV and CMV tetramer staining. Higher median proportions of cell expression of HLA-DR, Ki-67, granzyme B, CLA, CCR5, and CXCR6 were observed for CD38brightCD8+ T cells compared with CD38nonbrightCD8+ T cells in patients with acute GVHD (P < .05) but not in patients without acute GVHD (P not significant). No IFN-γ production was observed after incubation with CMV and EBV peptide pools. EBV-specific tetramer populations of 6.85% and 3.17% were detected in 2 patients with acute GVHD, whereas a CMV-specific tetramer population of 3.77% was detected in 1 patient with acute GVHD. No EBV- or CMV-specific tetramer populations were detected in any patient without acute GVHD. We conclude that CD38brightCD8+ T cells associated with the development of acute GVHD are activated, proliferating, and cytotoxic trafficking cells that do not appear to respond to CMV or EBV reactivation. Further studies are needed to determine whether these cells are directly involved in acute GVHD pathogenesis.