Apidima Cave fossils provide earliest evidence of Homo sapiens in Eurasia.

Two fossilized human crania (Apidima 1 and Apidima 2) from Apidima Cave, southern Greece, were discovered in the late 1970s but have remained enigmatic owing to their incomplete nature, taphonomic distortion and lack of archaeological context and chronology. Here we virtually reconstruct both crania, provide detailed comparative descriptions and analyses, and date them using U-series radiometric methods. Apidima 2 dates to more than 170 thousand years ago and has a Neanderthal-like morphological pattern. By contrast, Apidima 1 dates to more than 210 thousand years ago and presents a mixture of modern human and primitive features. These results suggest that two late Middle Pleistocene human groups were present at this site-an early Homo sapiens population, followed by a Neanderthal population. Our findings support multiple dispersals of early modern humans out of Africa, and highlight the complex demographic processes that characterized Pleistocene human evolution and modern human presence in southeast Europe.

Testing the discrepancy between physical and virtual linear measurements.

Virtual calculations of bone morphology are increasingly becoming the golden standard in anthropological sciences, gradually replacing the performance of direct physical measurements. Nevertheless, the potential discrepancy between the two approaches is rarely addressed. Here, we address this question focusing on the second thoracic vertebrae of 24 well-preserved individuals from the skeletal collection of the Forensic Anthropology Unit of Medical School at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece. Following traditional osteometric methods, a series of measurements were taken on the vertebral body, both directly (using a digital caliper) as well as on high-resolution 3D surface models. The arithmetic results of the two measuring techniques were then compared through a number of statistical analyses evaluating inter-method precision (Bland-Altman plots, TEM, %TEM and Wilcoxon test). Moreover, the values obtained from each approach were used to develop discriminant function equations for sex determination to evaluate if both approaches provide the same assessment. Both intraobserver and interobserver tests were performed. Although most statistical analyses showed a significant difference between the two measuring techniques, the discriminant function equations for sex determination provided the same assessment. Overall, the results of this experiment support the use of virtual linear measurements, also suggesting that a refinement of digital measuring protocols could improve their level of agreement with traditional direct osteometry.

A Reliable Regression-Based Approach for Reassociating Human Skeletal Elements of the Lower Limbs from Commingled Assemblages.

Accurate sorting of commingled human remains comprises a fundamental requirement for all further anthropological analyses. The lower limb bones are particularly important for reconstructing biological profiles. This study introduces a metric technique for sorting these elements using eight standard anthropological measurements and 222 adult individuals from Greece. The bones utilized were the os coxae, the femora, the tibiae and the tali. Simple regression analyses were used to develop functions for reassociating articulating bones, providing strong correlations (r = 0.74-0.95, p-value <0.05) and high coefficients of determination (r2 =0.54-0.91). Blind tests demonstrated that combining metric and morphoscopic techniques provides an excellent sorting accuracy for the hip and knee joints (ten of ten individuals), allowing for a reliable reassociation between a sex and age indicator (os coxae) and a body size indicator (femur). Overall, these results indicate the high value of metric methods in sorting commingled human remains.

A Statistical Method for Reassociating Human Tali and Calcanei from a Commingled Context.

In a commingled context, assessing that a talus and a calcaneus correspond to the same individual could become a primary step for accurately sorting human remains. For this purpose, the lengths and widths of the trochlea, posterior calcaneal articular surface, and posterior talar articular surface were measured in 197 individuals (105 males, 92 females) from the Athens Collection. A total of 12 highly accurate equations for reassociating tali and calcanei were developed, using simple and multiple linear regression analysis and they were found to be suitable for sorting commingled human remains. Bilateral asymmetry and sex did not have an effect on the accuracy of the method.