Effective expression and characterization of the receptor binding domains in SARS-CoV-2 Spike proteins from original strain and variants of concern using Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus in silkworm.

A new coronavirus, known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is responsible for the global pandemic of COVID-19 in 2020. Through structural analysis, it was found that several amino acid residues in the human angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (hACE2) receptor directly interact with those in the receptor binding domain (RBD) of the spike glycoprotein (S-protein). Various cell lines, including HEK293, HeLa cells, and the baculovirus expression vector system (BEVS) with the insect cell line Sf9, have been utilized to produce the RBD. In this study, we investigated the use of Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV) and BEVS. For efficient production of a highly pure recombinant RBD protein, we designed it with two tags (His tag and STREP tag) at the C-terminus and a solubilizing tag (SUMO) at the N-terminus. After expressing the protein using BmNPV and silkworm and purifying it with a HisTrap excel column, the eluted protein was digested with SUMO protease and further purified using a Strep-Tactin Superflow column. As a result, we obtained the RBD as a monomer with a yield of 2.6 mg/10 mL serum (equivalent to 30 silkworms). The RBD showed an affinity for the hACE2 receptor. Additionally, the RBDs from the Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Omicron variants were expressed and purified using the same protocol. It was found that the RBD from the Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Delta variants could be obtained with yields of 1.4-2.6 mg/10 mL serum and had an affinity to the hACE2 receptor.

Venestatin from parasitic helminths interferes with receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE)-mediated immune responses to promote larval migration.

Parasitic helminths can reside in humans owing to their ability to disrupt host protective immunity. Receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE), which is highly expressed in host skin, mediates inflammatory responses by regulating the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and endothelial adhesion molecules. In this study, we evaluated the effects of venestatin, an EF-hand Ca2+-binding protein secreted by the parasitic helminth Strongyloides venezuelensis, on RAGE activity and immune responses. Our results demonstrated that venestatin bound to RAGE and downregulated the host immune response. Recombinant venestatin predominantly bound to the RAGE C1 domain in a Ca2+-dependent manner. Recombinant venestatin effectively alleviated RAGE-mediated inflammation, including footpad edema in mice, and pneumonia induced by an exogenous RAGE ligand. Infection experiments using S. venezuelensis larvae and venestatin silencing via RNA interference revealed that endogenous venestatin promoted larval migration from the skin to the lungs in a RAGE-dependent manner. Moreover, endogenous venestatin suppressed macrophage and neutrophil accumulation around larvae. Although the invasion of larvae upregulated the abundance of RAGE ligands in host skin tissues, mRNA expression levels of tumor necrosis factor-α, cyclooxygenase-2, endothelial adhesion molecules vascular cell adhesion protein-1, intracellular adhesion molecule-1, and E-selectin were suppressed by endogenous venestatin. Taken together, our results indicate that venestatin suppressed RAGE-mediated immune responses in host skin induced by helminthic infection, thereby promoting larval migration. The anti-inflammatory mechanism of venestatin may be targeted for the development of anthelminthics and immunosuppressive agents for the treatment of RAGE-mediated inflammatory diseases.

Production of antiviral vaccine antigens using a silkworm-baculovirus expression system.

The outbreak of the SARS-2-CoV infection has become a global outbreak and continues to cause many deaths. In addition, the risk of pandemics continues to increase due to environmental changes and the globalization of human exchange and logistics. On the other hand, our preparedness for emerging infectious diseases caused by such unknown viruses is inadequate, and dealing with viral infections is one of the most important issues that need to be addressed immediately. Vaccine based disease control is considered an ideal countermeasure for infectious diseases, as it is expected to provide maximum efficacy at minimum cost. Although new nucleic acid-based vaccines are leading the way in the prevention of COVID-19, the mainstream of vaccines is still inactivated or live attenuated vaccines that use the pathogen virus itself. Subunit vaccines, in which specific virus-derived proteins are produced as recombinant proteins and used as vaccine antigens, have been developed, but production and development of many antigens that are difficult to mass-produce as recombinant proteins, such as the spike protein antigen of COVID-19 has not progressed. This paper describes the development of recombinant protein vaccines using the silkworm, which has an advantage in the production of such difficult-to-express vaccine antigens, especially virus-like particles.

Highly efficient protein expression of Plasmodium vivax surface antigen, Pvs25, by silkworm and its biochemical analysis.

Plasmodium vivax ookinete surface protein, Pvs25, is a candidate for a transmission-blocking vaccine (TBV) for malaria. Pvs25 has four EGF-like domains containing 22 cysteine residues forming 11 intramolecular disulfide bonds, a structural feature that makes its recombinant protein expression difficult. In this study, we report the high expression of recombinant Pvs25 as a soluble form in silkworm, Bombyx mori. The Pvs25 protein was purified from hemolymphs of larvae and pupae by affinity chromatography. In the Pvs25 expressed by silkworm, no isoforms with inappropriate disulfide bonds were found, requiring no further purification step, which is necessary in the case of Pichia pastoris-based expression systems. The Pvs25 from silkworm was confirmed to be molecularly uniform by sodium dodecyl sulfate gel electrophoresis and size-exclusion chromatography. To examine the immunogenicity, the Pvs25 from B. mori was administered to BALB/c mice subcutaneously with oil adjuvant. The Pvs25 produced by silkworm induced potent and robust immune responses, and the induced antisera correctly recognized P. vivax ookinetes in vitro, demonstrating the potency of Pvs25 from silkworm as a candidate for a malaria TBV. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to construct a system for mass-producing malaria TBV antigens using silkworm.

Drug repurposing for the treatment of COVID-19.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) remains prevalent worldwide since its onset was confirmed in Wuhan, China in 2019. Vaccines against the causative virus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), have shown a preventive effect against the onset and severity of COVID-19, and social and economic activities are gradually recovering. However, the presence of vaccine-resistant variants has been reported, and the development of therapeutic agents for patients with severe COVID-19 and related sequelae remains urgent. Drug repurposing, also called drug repositioning or eco-pharma, is the strategy of using previously approved and safe drugs for a therapeutic indication that is different from their original indication. The risk of severe COVID-19 and mortality increases with advancing age, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes, and cancer. We have reported three protein-protein interactions that are related to heart failure, and recently identified that one mechanism increases the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection in mammalian cells. This review outlines the global efforts and outcomes of drug repurposing research for the treatment of severe COVID-19. It also discusses our recent finding of a new protein-protein interaction that is common to COVID-19 aggravation and heart failure.

TRPC3-Nox2 Protein Complex Formation Increases the Risk of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein-Induced Cardiomyocyte Dysfunction through ACE2 Upregulation.

Myocardial damage caused by the newly emerged coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection is one of the key determinants of COVID-19 severity and mortality. SARS-CoV-2 entry to host cells is initiated by binding with its receptor, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) 2, and the ACE2 abundance is thought to reflect the susceptibility to infection. Here, we report that ibudilast, which we previously identified as a potent inhibitor of protein complex between transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) 3 and NADPH oxidase (Nox) 2, attenuates the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein pseudovirus-evoked contractile and metabolic dysfunctions of neonatal rat cardiomyocytes (NRCMs). Epidemiologically reported risk factors of severe COVID-19, including cigarette sidestream smoke (CSS) and anti-cancer drug treatment, commonly upregulate ACE2 expression level, and these were suppressed by inhibiting TRPC3-Nox2 complex formation. Exposure of NRCMs to SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus, as well as CSS and doxorubicin (Dox), induces ATP release through pannexin-1 hemi-channels, and this ATP release potentiates pseudovirus entry to NRCMs and human iPS cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPS-CMs). As the pseudovirus entry followed by production of reactive oxygen species was attenuated by inhibiting TRPC3-Nox2 complex in hiPS-CMs, we suggest that TRPC3-Nox2 complex formation triggered by panexin1-mediated ATP release participates in exacerbation of myocardial damage by amplifying ACE2-dependent SARS-CoV-2 entry.

Functional binding of E-selectin to its ligands is enhanced by structural features beyond its lectin domain.

Selectins are key to mediating interactions involved in cellular adhesion and migration, underlying processes such as immune responses, metastasis, and transplantation. Selectins are composed of a lectin domain, an epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like domain, multiple short consensus repeats (SCRs), a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic tail. It is well-established that the lectin and EGF domains are required to mediate interactions with ligands; however, the contributions of the other domains in mediating these interactions remain obscure. Using various E-selectin constructs produced in a newly developed silkworm-based expression system and several assays performed under both static and physiological flow conditions, including flow cytometry, glycan array analysis, surface plasmon resonance, and cell-rolling assays, we show here that a reduction in the number of SCR domains is correlated with a decline in functional E-selectin binding to hematopoietic cell E- and/or L-selectin ligand (HCELL) and P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1). Moreover, the binding was significantly improved through E-selectin dimerization and by a substitution (A28H) that mimics an extended conformation of the lectin and EGF domains. Analyses of the association and dissociation rates indicated that the SCR domains, conformational extension, and dimerization collectively contribute to the association rate of E-selectin-ligand binding, whereas just the lectin and EGF domains contribute to the dissociation rate. These findings provide the first evidence of the critical role of the association rate in functional E-selectin-ligand interactions, and they highlight that the SCR domains have an important role that goes beyond the structural extension of the lectin and EGF domains.

Stable trimer formation of spike protein from porcine epidemic diarrhea virus improves the efficiency of secretory production in silkworms and induces neutralizing antibodies in mice.

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is a highly infectious pathogen of watery diarrhea that causes serious economic loss to the swine industry worldwide. Especially because of the high mortality rate in neonatal piglets, a vaccine with less production cost and high protective effect against PEDV is desired. The intrinsically assembled homotrimer of spike (S) protein on the PEDV viral membrane contributing to the host cell entry is a target of vaccine development. In this study, we designed trimerized PEDV S protein for efficient production in the silkworm-baculovirus expression vector system (silkworm-BEVS) and evaluated its immunogenicity in the mouse. The genetic fusion of the trimeric motif improved the expression of S protein in silkworm-BEVS. A small-scale screening of silkworm strains to further improve the S protein productivity finally achieved the yield of about 2 mg from the 10 mL larval serum. Mouse immunization study demonstrated that the trimerized S protein could elicit strong humoral immunity, including the S protein-specific IgG in the serum. These sera contained neutralizing antibodies that can protect Vero cells from PEDV infection. These results demonstrated that silkworm-BEVS provides a platform for the production of trimeric S proteins, which are promising subunit vaccines against coronaviruses such as PEDV.

Using Eukaryotic Expression Systems to Generate Human α1,3-Fucosyltransferases That Effectively Create Selectin-Binding Glycans on Stem Cells.

Recruitment of circulating cells toward target sites is primarily dependent on selectin/ligand adhesive interactions. Glycosyltransferases are involved in the creation of selectin ligands on proteins and lipids. α1,3-Fucosylation is imperative for the creation of selectin ligands, and a number of fucosyltransferases (FTs) can modify terminal lactosamines on cells to create these ligands. One FT, fucosyltransferase VI (FTVI), adds a fucose in an α1,3 configuration to N-acetylglucosamine to generate sialyl Lewis X (sLex) epitopes on proteins of live cells and enhances their ability to bind E-selectin. Although a number of recombinant human FTVIs have been purified, apart from limited commercial enzymes, they were not characterized for their activity on live cells. Here we focused on establishing a robust method for producing FTVI that is active on living cells (hematopoietic cells and mesenchymal stromal cells). To this end, we used two expression systems, Bombyx mori (silkworm) and Pichia pastoris (yeast), to produce significant amounts of N-terminally tagged FTVI and demonstrated that these enzymes have superior activity when compared to currently available commercial enzymes that are produced from various expression systems. Overall, we outline a scheme for obtaining large amounts of highly active FTVI that can be used for the application of FTVI in enhancing the engraftment of cells lacking the sLex epitopes.

Efficient production of recombinant SARS-CoV-2 spike protein using the baculovirus-silkworm system.

In the case of a new viral disease outbreak, an immediate development of virus detection kits and vaccines is required. For COVID-19, we established a rapid production procedure for SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (S protein) by using the baculovirus-silkworm expression system. The baculovirus vector-derived S proteins were successfully secreted to silkworm serum, whereas those formed insoluble structure in the larval fat body and the pupal cells. The ectodomain of S protein with the native sequence was cleaved by the host furin-protease, resulting in less recombinant protein production. The S protein modified in furin protease-target site was efficiently secreted to silkworm serum and was purified as oligomers, which showed immunoreactivity for anti-SARS-CoV-2 S2 antibody. By using the direct transfection of recombinant bacmid to silkworms, we achieved the efficient production of SARS-CoV-2 S protein as fetal bovine serum (FBS)-free system. The resultant purified S protein would be useful tools for the development of immunodetection kits, antigen for immunization for immunoglobulin production, and vaccines.

Structure-function analyses of a stereotypic rheumatoid factor unravel the structural basis for germline-encoded antibody autoreactivity.

Rheumatoid factors (RFs) are autoantibodies against the fragment-crystallizable (Fc) region of IgG. In individuals with hematological diseases such as cryoglobulinemia and certain B cell lymphoma forms, the RFs derived from specific heavy- and light-chain germline pairs, so-called "stereotypic RFs," are frequently produced in copious amounts and form immune complexes with IgG in serum. Of note, many structural details of the antigen recognition mechanisms in RFs are unclear. Here we report the crystal structure of the RF YES8c derived from the IGHV1-69/IGKV3-20 germline pair, the most common of the stereotypic RFs, in complex with human IgG1-Fc at 2.8 Å resolution. We observed that YES8c binds to the CH2-CH3 elbow in the canonical antigen-binding manner involving a large antigen-antibody interface. On the basis of this observation, combined with mutational analyses, we propose a recognition mechanism common to IGHV1-69/IGKV3-20 RFs: (1) the interaction of the Leu432-His435 region of Fc enables the highly variable complementarity-determining region (CDR)-H3 to participate in the binding, (2) the hydrophobic tip in the CDR-H2 typical of IGHV1-69 antibodies recognizes the hydrophobic patch on Fc, and (3) the interaction of the highly conserved RF light chain with Fc is important for RF activity. These features may determine the putative epitope common to the IGHV1-69/IGKV3-20 RFs. We also showed that some mutations in the binding site of RF increase the affinity to Fc, which may aggravate hematological diseases. Our findings unravel the structural basis for germline-encoded antibody autoreactivity.

Expression and purification of biologically active human granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (hGM-CSF) using silkworm-baculovirus expression vector system.

Human granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (hGM-CSF) is a hematopoietic growth factor. It is widely employed as a therapeutic agent targeting neutropenia in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy and in patients with AIDS or after bone marrow transplantation. In this study, we constructed the recombinant baculoviruses for the expression of recombinant hGM-CSF (rhGM-CSF) with two small affinity tags (His-tag and Strep-tag) at the N or C-terminus. Compared to N-tagged rhGM-CSF, C-tagged rhGM-CSF was highly recovered from silkworm hemolymph. The purified rhGM-CSF proteins migrated as a diffuse band and were confirmed to hold N-glycosylations. A comparable activity was achieved when commercial hGM-CSF was tested as a control. Considering the high price of hGM-CSF in the market, our results and strategies using silkworm-baculovirus system can become a great reference for mass production of the active rhGM-CSF at a lower cost.

Heat Shock Cognate 70 Functions as A Chaperone for the Stability of Kinetochore Protein CENP-N in Holocentric Insect Silkworms.

The centromere, in which kinetochore proteins are assembled, plays an important role in the accurate congression and segregation of chromosomes during cell mitosis. Although the function of the centromere and kinetochore is conserved from monocentric to holocentric, the DNA sequences of the centromere and components of the kinetochore are varied among different species. Given the lack of core centromere protein A (CENP-A) and CENP-C in the lepidopteran silkworm Bombyx mori, which possesses holocentric chromosomes, here we investigated the role of CENP-N, another important member of the centromere protein family essential for kinetochore assembly. For the first time, cellular localization and RNA interference against CENP-N have confirmed its kinetochore function in silkworms. To gain further insights into the regulation of CENP-N in the centromere, we analyzed the affinity-purified complex of CENP-N by mass spectrometry and identified 142 interacting proteins. Among these factors, we found that the chaperone protein heat shock cognate 70 (HSC70) is able to regulate the stability of CENP-N by prohibiting ubiquitin-proteasome pathway, indicating that HSC70 could control cell cycle-regulated degradation of CENP-N at centromeres. Altogether, the present work will provide a novel clue to understand the regulatory mechanism for the kinetochore activity of CENP-N during the cell cycle.

Purification and characterization of immunogenic recombinant virus-like particles of porcine circovirus type 2 expressed in silkworm pupae.

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is a primary causative agent of postweaningmultisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS), which has a significant economic impact on the swine industry. The capsid protein (Cap) encoded by ORF2 of the viral genome has been used effectively as a vaccine against PCV2 infection. The Cap protein can spontaneously assemble into virus-like particles (VLPs) that are safe and highly immunogenic for vaccine applications. Several expression systems, including bacteria, yeast and insect cells, have been utilized to produce PCV2 VLPs. However, in some cases, the recombinant Cap (rCap) proteins produced in bacteria and yeast do not assemble spontaneously. In this study, we expressed rCap protein using a silkworm-baculovirus expression vector system (silkworm-BEVS) for mass production of PCV2 VLPs and established a simple three-step protocol for its purification from pupae: extraction by detergent, ammonium sulfate precipitation and anion exchange column chromatography. Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) analysis and transmission electron microscope (TEM) observation showed that purified rCap proteins formed VLPs with a similar morphology to that of the original virus. Furthermore, the VLPs produced in silkworms were capable of inducing neutralizing antibodies against PCV2 in mice. Our results demonstrated that the silkworm system is a powerful tool for the production of PCV2 VLPs and will be useful for the development of a reliable and cost-effective PCV2 vaccine.

A functional polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase (PGANT) initiates O-glycosylation in cultured silkworm BmN4 cells.

Mucin-type O-glycosylation is initiated by UDP-GalNAc:polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferases (ppGalNAc-Ts or PGANTs), attaching GalNAc to serine or threonine residue of a protein substrate. In the insect model from Lepidoptera, silkworm (Bombyx mori), however, O-glycosylation pathway is totally unexplored and remains largely unknown. In this study, as the first report regarding protein O-glycosylation analysis in silkworms, we verified the O-glycan profile that a common core 1 Gal (ß1-3) GalNAc disaccharide branch without terminally sialylated structure is mainly formed for a baculovirus-produced human proteoglycan 4 (PRG4) protein. Intriguingly, functional screenings in cultured silkworm BmN4 cells for nine Bmpgants reveal that Bmpgant2 is the solo functional BmPGANT for PRG4, implying that Bmpgants may have unique cell/tissue or protein substrate preferences. Furthermore, a recombinant BmPGANT2 protein was successfully purified from silkworm-BEVS and exhibited a high ability to transfer GalNAc for both peptide and protein substrates. Taken together, the present results clarified the functional BmPGANT2 in cultured silkworm cells, providing crucial fundamental insights for future studies dissecting the detailed silkworm O-glycosylation pathways and productions of glycoproteins with O-glycans.

Characterization of Armitage and Yb containing granules and their relationship to nuage in ovary-derived cultured silkworm cell.

PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) are a class of endogenous small non-coding RNAs, which are mostly 24-32 nucleotides in length and interact specifically with PIWI subfamily of argonaute proteins. Despite the significant research progress in germ line piRNA pathway, its role in somatic cell is not well known. In Drosophila ovarian somatic cell, maturation of primary piRNA and its loading onto Piwi occurs at perinuclear Yb body. The Armitage (Armi) and Yb proteins are the major components of Yb body and specially expressed in ovarian somatic cell. Based on the reports, here we studied the BmArmi and BmYb in Bombyx mori ovary-derived BmN4 cells expressing BmVasa. In this study, we show that BmArmi and BmYb co-localized with BmVasa at nuage. The helicase domains of BmArmi and BmYb are important for nuage localization. Moreover, RNAi of piRNA components reveal that BmArmi depend on BmAgo3 for nuage localization, and BmArmi and BmYb form cytoplasmic granules independently in the absence of BmVasa. Our results provide evidence that the BmArmi and BmYb coexist with BmVasa and play an important role in perinuclear nuage granules formation in ovary-derived BmN4 cell.

Molecular characterization of mitochondrial Zucchini and its relation to nuage-piRNA pathway components in Bombyx mori ovary-derived BmN4 cells.

Piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) are a class of small non-coding RNAs that associate with PIWI subfamily proteins, which play an important role in transposon silencing in animal germ cell. The piRNAs biogenesis is divided into two major pathways: primary and secondary, and both pathways are independent of double-stranded RNA-processing enzyme Dicer, which processes the single-stranded RNA transcripts in microRNA (miRNA) and siRNA (small interfering RNA) pathway. Primary piRNAs are processed from long non-coding RNA precursors transcribed from piRNA clusters. Zucchini (Zuc), a mitochondrial phospholipase D (PLD) superfamily protein is conserved among the animals and involved in piRNA biogenesis. Recent studies showed that the Zucchini is an endoribonuclease essential for primary piRNA maturation and production of phased piRNA in secondary piRNA biogenesis of drosophila germ cell. Based on these reports, here we identified and studied the silkworm Zucchini (BmZuc) at subcellular level in ovary-derived BmN4 cell. The silkworm Zuc specifically expressed in germ-related tissues and localized on mitochondria and partially co-localized with perinuclear nuage-piRNA pathway components and nuage marker protein BmVasa. Molecular dissection analyses revealed that the conserved mitochondrial localization sequence, RGV motif, PLDc 2 domain and HKD motif are important for the BmZuc mitochondrial localization. Moreover, the knockdown analyses showed that the piRNA pathway components are independent on BmZuc for their nuage localization, whereas BmZuc depend on piRNA pathway components for the proper localization. Our data provides vital information on mitochondrial BmZuc and its relationship to "nuage" in ovary-derived BmN4 cell.

Amyloidogenic lysozymes accumulate in the endoplasmic reticulum accompanied by the augmentation of ER stress signals.

BACKGROUND: Naturally occurring single mutants, I56T, F57I, W64R and D67H of lysozyme in human, have been known to form abnormal protein aggregates (amyloid fibrils) and to accumulate in several organs, including the liver, spleen and kidney, resulting in familial systemic amyloidosis. These human pathogenic lysozyme variants are considered to raise subtle conformational changes compared to the wild type. METHODS: Here we examined the effects of the aberrant mutant lysozymes I56T, F57I, W64R and D67H, each of which possesses a point mutation in its molecule, on a cultured human cell line, HEK293, in which the genes were individually integrated and overexpressed. RESULTS: Western blot analyses showed lesser amounts of these variant proteins in the medium compared to the wild type, but they were abundant in the cell pellets, indicating that the modified lysozyme proteins were scarcely secreted into the medium but were retained in the cells. Immunocytochemistry revealed that these proteins resided in restricted regions which were stained by an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) marker. Moreover, the overexpression of the mutant lysozymes were accompanied by marked increases in XBP-1s and GRP78/BiP, which are downstream agents of the IRE1α signaling pathway responding to the unfolded protein response (UPR) upon ER stress. RNAi for the mutant lysozymes' expression greatly suppressed the increases of these agents. CONCLUSIONS AND GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: Our results suggest that the accumulation of pathogenic lysozymes in the ER caused ER stress and the UPR response mainly via the IRE1α pathway.

Proteasome inhibitor MG132 impairs autophagic flux through compromising formation of autophagosomes in Bombyx cells.

MG132 has been used as a proteasome inhibitor on Bombyx cells, but its physiological effects on autophagy still have not been elucidated. In this study, we find that the lipidated BmAtg8, BmAtg8-PE as an autophagosomal marker protein, is only localized to membranes. Then we established systems to monitor autophagic flux in Bombyx cells: Induction of autophagy reduces exogenous BmAtg8 and exogenous BmAtg8-PE, facilitates formation of autophagosomes indicated by green EGFP-BmAtg8 puncta after cotreatment by Rapamycin and Bafilomycin A1, and causes accumulation of free EGFP from EGFP-BmAtg8 cleavage in autolysosomes. Using these established systems, we find that exposure of MG132 inhibits both basal and Rapamycin-induced autophagy when polyubiquitinated proteins are accumulated markedly in Bombyx cells. Interestingly, we reveal that attenuation of autophagy in these cells is ascribed as distinct suppression of formation of autophagosomes after MG132 treatment.

Effect of antibiotics on extracellular protein level in Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 organisms harbouring different plasmids were cultured in broths containing appropriate antibiotic(s). Extracellular proteins were more abundant in the presence of tetracycline or kanamycin than in the presence of other antibiotics. Zymography revealed that alkaline protease (AprA) production was interfered by these antibiotics. Extracellular proteins were not observed at the same level when AprA-deficient EG03 strains were cultured in the presence of different antibiotics. The extracellular protein levels were dependent on the antibiotics and plasmid derivative groups. Levels of extracellular protein were not significantly different between PAO1 (pBBR1MCS-5) and EG03 (pAprcomp-MCS5), and profiles of the extracellular proteome were comparable. In contrast, the level of EG03 (pBBR1MCS-MCS5) extracellular protein was higher than those observed in the other two strains. These results suggested that although AprA partially contributes to the alteration of extracellular protein level, the effect is limited.