Spatiotemporal transcriptome atlas reveals the regional specification of the developing human brain.

Different functional regions of brain are fundamental for basic neurophysiological activities. However, the regional specification remains largely unexplored during human brain development. Here, by combining spatial transcriptomics (scStereo-seq) and scRNA-seq, we built a spatiotemporal developmental atlas of multiple human brain regions from 6-23 gestational weeks (GWs). We discovered that, around GW8, radial glia (RG) cells have displayed regional heterogeneity and specific spatial distribution. Interestingly, we found that the regional heterogeneity of RG subtypes contributed to the subsequent neuronal specification. Specifically, two diencephalon-specific subtypes gave rise to glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons, whereas subtypes in ventral midbrain were associated with the dopaminergic neurons. Similar GABAergic neuronal subtypes were shared between neocortex and diencephalon. Additionally, we revealed that cell-cell interactions between oligodendrocyte precursor cells and GABAergic neurons influenced and promoted neuronal development coupled with regional specification. Altogether, this study provides comprehensive insights into the regional specification in the developing human brain.

Targeting of multiple tumor-associated antigens by individual T cell receptors during successful cancer immunotherapy.

The T cells of the immune system can target tumors and clear solid cancers following tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte (TIL) therapy. We used combinatorial peptide libraries and a proteomic database to reveal the antigen specificities of persistent cancer-specific T cell receptors (TCRs) following successful TIL therapy for stage IV malignant melanoma. Remarkably, individual TCRs could target multiple different tumor types via the HLA A∗02:01-restricted epitopes EAAGIGILTV, LLLGIGILVL, and NLSALGIFST from Melan A, BST2, and IMP2, respectively. Atomic structures of a TCR bound to all three antigens revealed the importance of the shared x-x-x-A/G-I/L-G-I-x-x-x recognition motif. Multi-epitope targeting allows individual T cells to attack cancer in several ways simultaneously. Such "multipronged" T cells exhibited superior recognition of cancer cells compared with conventional T cell recognition of individual epitopes, making them attractive candidates for the development of future immunotherapies.

Emergence of immune escape at dominant SARS-CoV-2 killer T cell epitope.

We studied the prevalent cytotoxic CD8 T cell response mounted against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Spike glycoprotein269-277 epitope (sequence YLQPRTFLL) via the most frequent human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I worldwide, HLA A∗02. The Spike P272L mutation that has arisen in at least 112 different SARS-CoV-2 lineages to date, including in lineages classified as "variants of concern," was not recognized by the large CD8 T cell response seen across cohorts of HLA A∗02+ convalescent patients and individuals vaccinated against SARS-CoV-2, despite these responses comprising of over 175 different individual T cell receptors. Viral escape at prevalent T cell epitopes restricted by high frequency HLAs may be particularly problematic when vaccine immunity is focused on a single protein such as SARS-CoV-2 Spike, providing a strong argument for inclusion of multiple viral proteins in next generation vaccines and highlighting the need for monitoring T cell escape in new SARS-CoV-2 variants.

The receptor binding domain of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron subvariants targets Siglec-9 to decrease its immunogenicity by preventing macrophage phagocytosis.

The development of a vaccine specific to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 Omicron has been hampered due to its low immunogenicity. Here, using reverse mutagenesis, we found that a phenylalanine-to-serine mutation at position 375 (F375S) in the spike protein of Omicron to revert it to the sequence found in Delta and other ancestral strains significantly enhanced the immunogenicity of Omicron vaccines. Sequence FAPFFAF at position 371-377 in Omicron spike had a potent inhibitory effect on macrophage uptake of receptor-binding domain (RBD) nanoparticles or spike-pseudovirus particles containing this sequence. Omicron RBD enhanced binding to Siglec-9 on macrophages to impair phagocytosis and antigen presentation and promote immune evasion, which could be abrogated by the F375S mutation. A bivalent F375S Omicron RBD and Delta-RBD nanoparticle vaccine elicited potent and broad nAbs in mice, rabbits and rhesus macaques. Our research suggested that manipulation of the Siglec-9 pathway could be a promising approach to enhance vaccine response.

Effects of aneuploidy on cell behaviour and function.

Aneuploidy, a genomic alternation characterized by deviations in the copy number of chromosomes, affects organisms from early development through to aging. Although it is a main cause of human pregnancy loss and a hallmark of cancer, how aneuploidy affects cellular function has been elusive. The last two decades have seen rapid advances in the understanding of the causes and consequences of aneuploidy at the molecular and cellular levels. These studies have uncovered effects of aneuploidy that can be beneficial or detrimental to cells and organisms in an environmental context-dependent and karyotype-dependent manner. Aneuploidy also imposes general stress on cells that stems from an imbalanced genome and, consequently, also an imbalanced proteome. These insights provide the fundamental framework for understanding the impact of aneuploidy in genome evolution, human pathogenesis and drug resistance.

A GAPDH serotonylation system couples CD8+ T cell glycolytic metabolism to antitumor immunity.

Apart from the canonical serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine [5-HT])-receptor signaling transduction pattern, 5-HT-involved post-translational serotonylation has recently been noted. Here, we report a glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) serotonylation system that promotes the glycolytic metabolism and antitumor immune activity of CD8+ T cells. Tissue transglutaminase 2 (TGM2) transfers 5-HT to GAPDH glutamine 262 and catalyzes the serotonylation reaction. Serotonylation supports the cytoplasmic localization of GAPDH, which induces a glycolytic metabolic shift in CD8+ T cells and contributes to antitumor immunity. CD8+ T cells accumulate intracellular 5-HT for serotonylation through both synthesis by tryptophan hydroxylase 1 (TPH1) and uptake from the extracellular compartment via serotonin transporter (SERT). Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) degrades 5-HT and acts as an intrinsic negative regulator of CD8+ T cells. The adoptive transfer of 5-HT-producing TPH1-overexpressing chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cells induced a robust antitumor response. Our findings expand the known range of neuroimmune interaction patterns by providing evidence of receptor-independent serotonylation post-translational modification.

Targeting the adaptability of heterogeneous aneuploids.

Aneuploid genomes, characterized by unbalanced chromosome stoichiometry (karyotype), are associated with cancer malignancy and drug resistance of pathogenic fungi. The phenotypic diversity resulting from karyotypic diversity endows the cell population with superior adaptability. We show here, using a combination of experimental data and a general stochastic model, that the degree of phenotypic variation, thus evolvability, escalates with the degree of overall growth suppression. Such scaling likely explains the challenge of treating aneuploidy diseases with a single stress-inducing agent. Instead, we propose the design of an "evolutionary trap" (ET) targeting both karyotypic diversity and fitness. This strategy entails a selective condition "channeling" a karyotypically divergent population into one with a predominant and predictably drugable karyotypic feature. We provide a proof-of-principle case in budding yeast and demonstrate the potential efficacy of this strategy toward aneuploidy-based azole resistance in Candida albicans. By analyzing existing pharmacogenomics data, we propose the potential design of an ET against glioblastoma.

The Transcriptome and DNA Methylome Landscapes of Human Primordial Germ Cells.

Germ cells are vital for transmitting genetic information from one generation to the next and for maintaining the continuation of species. Here, we analyze the transcriptome of human primordial germ cells (PGCs) from the migrating stage to the gonadal stage at single-cell and single-base resolutions. Human PGCs show unique transcription patterns involving the simultaneous expression of both pluripotency genes and germline-specific genes, with a subset of them displaying developmental-stage-specific features. Furthermore, we analyze the DNA methylome of human PGCs and find global demethylation of their genomes. Approximately 10 to 11 weeks after gestation, the PGCs are nearly devoid of any DNA methylation, with only 7.8% and 6.0% of the median methylation levels in male and female PGCs, respectively. Our work paves the way toward deciphering the complex epigenetic reprogramming of the germline with the aim of restoring totipotency in fertilized oocytes.

How the extra X chromosome impairs the development of male fetal germ cells.

The dosage of X-linked genes is accurately regulated with the development of fetal germ cells (FGCs)1,2. How aberrant dosage of X-linked genes impairs FGC development in humans remains poorly understood. FGCs of patients with Klinefelter syndrome (KS), who have an extra X chromosome, provide natural models for addressing this issue3. Here we demonstrate that most human FGCs in KS are arrested at an early stage, characterized by the upregulation of genes related to pluripotency, the WNT pathway and the TGF-ß pathway, along with the downregulation of genes involved in FGC differentiation. The limited KS FGCs that are capable of reaching the late stage remain relatively naive. X chromosomes are not inactivated and the dosage of X-linked genes is excessive in KS FGCs. X-linked genes dominate the differentially expressed genes and are enriched in critical biological processes associated with the developmental delay of KS FGCs. Moreover, aberrant interactions between Sertoli cells and FGCs disrupt the migration of late FGCs to the basement membrane in KS. Notably, inhibition of the TGF-ß pathway improves the differentiation of KS FGCs. Our findings elucidate how the extra X chromosome impairs the development of male FGCs and reveal the initial molecular events preceding germ cell loss in KS.

The long noncoding RNA glycoLINC assembles a lower glycolytic metabolon to promote glycolysis.

Non-covalent complexes of glycolytic enzymes, called metabolons, were postulated in the 1970s, but the concept has been controversial. Here we show that a c-Myc-responsive long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) that we call glycoLINC (gLINC) acts as a backbone for metabolon formation between all four glycolytic payoff phase enzymes (PGK1, PGAM1, ENO1, and PKM2) along with lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA). The gLINC metabolon enhances glycolytic flux, increases ATP production, and enables cell survival under serine deprivation. Furthermore, gLINC overexpression in cancer cells promotes xenograft growth in mice fed a diet deprived of serine, suggesting that cancer cells employ gLINC during metabolic reprogramming. We propose that gLINC makes a functional contribution to cancer cell adaptation and provide the first example of a lncRNA-facilitated metabolon.

Nanoparticle Vaccines Based on the Receptor Binding Domain (RBD) and Heptad Repeat (HR) of SARS-CoV-2 Elicit Robust Protective Immune Responses.

Various vaccine strategies have been proposed in response to the global COVID-19 pandemic, each with unique strategies for eliciting immune responses. Here, we developed nanoparticle vaccines by covalently conjugating the self-assembled 24-mer ferritin to the receptor binding domain (RBD) and/or heptad repeat (HR) subunits of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike (S) protein. Compared to monomer vaccines, nanoparticle vaccines elicited more robust neutralizing antibodies and cellular immune responses. RBD and RBD-HR nanoparticle vaccinated hACE2 transgenic mice vaccinated with RBD and/or RBD-HR nanoparticles exhibited reduced viral load in the lungs after SARS-CoV-2 challenge. RBD-HR nanoparticle vaccines also promoted neutralizing antibodies and cellular immune responses against other coronaviruses. The nanoparticle vaccination of rhesus macaques induced neutralizing antibodies, and T and B cell responses prior to boost immunization; these responses persisted for more than three months. RBD- and HR-based nanoparticles thus present a promising vaccination approach against SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses.

Organelle-based aggregation and retention of damaged proteins in asymmetrically dividing cells.

Aggregation of damaged or misfolded proteins is a protective mechanism against proteotoxic stress, abnormalities of which underlie many aging-related diseases. Here, we show that in asymmetrically dividing yeast cells, aggregation of cytosolic misfolded proteins does not occur spontaneously but requires new polypeptide synthesis and is restricted to the surface of ER, which harbors the majority of active translation sites. Protein aggregates formed on ER are frequently also associated with or are later captured by mitochondria, greatly constraining aggregate mobility. During mitosis, aggregates are tethered to well-anchored maternal mitochondria, whereas mitochondria acquired by the bud are largely free of aggregates. Disruption of aggregate-mitochondria association resulted in increased mobility and leakage of mother-accumulated aggregates into the bud. Cells with advanced replicative age exhibit gradual decline of aggregates-mitochondria association, likely contributing to their diminished ability to rejuvenate through asymmetric cell division.

CEP120-mediated KIAA0753 recruitment onto centrioles is required for timely neuronal differentiation and germinal zone exit in the developing cerebellum.

Joubert syndrome (JS) is a recessive ciliopathy in which all affected individuals have congenital cerebellar vermis hypoplasia. Here, we report that CEP120, a JS-associated protein involved in centriole biogenesis and cilia assembly, regulates timely neuronal differentiation and the departure of granule neuron progenitors (GNPs) from their germinal zone during cerebellar development. Our results show that depletion of Cep120 perturbs GNP cell cycle progression, resulting in a delay of cell cycle exit in vivo. To dissect the potential mechanism, we investigated the association between CEP120 interactome and the JS database and identified KIAA0753 (a JS-associated protein) as a CEP120-interacting protein. Surprisingly, we found that CEP120 recruits KIAA0753 to centrioles, and that loss of this interaction induces accumulation of GNPs in the germinal zone and impairs neuronal differentiation. Importantly, the replenishment of wild-type CEP120 rescues the above defects, whereas expression of JS-associated CEP120 mutants, which hinder KIAA0753 recruitment, does not. Together, our data reveal a close interplay between CEP120 and KIAA0753 for the germinal zone exit and timely neuronal differentiation of GNPs during cerebellar development, and mutations in CEP120 and KIAA0753 may participate in the heterotopia and cerebellar hypoplasia observed in JS patients.

Genome analyses of single human oocytes.

Single-cell genome analyses of human oocytes are important for meiosis research and preimplantation genomic screening. However, the nonuniformity of single-cell whole-genome amplification hindered its use. Here, we demonstrate genome analyses of single human oocytes using multiple annealing and looping-based amplification cycle (MALBAC)-based sequencing technology. By sequencing the triads of the first and second polar bodies (PB1 and PB2) and the oocyte pronuclei from same female egg donors, we phase the genomes of these donors with detected SNPs and determine the crossover maps of their oocytes. Our data exhibit an expected crossover interference and indicate a weak chromatid interference. Further, the genome of the oocyte pronucleus, including information regarding aneuploidy and SNPs in disease-associated alleles, can be accurately deduced from the genomes of PB1 and PB2. The MALBAC-based preimplantation genomic screening in in vitro fertilization (IVF) enables accurate and cost-effective selection of normal fertilized eggs for embryo transfer.

Characterization of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.4 and BA.5 isolates in rodents.

The BA.2 sublineage of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant has become dominant in most countries around the world; however, the prevalence of BA.4 and BA.5 is increasing rapidly in several regions. BA.2 is less pathogenic in animal models than previously circulating variants of concern1-4. Compared with BA.2, however, BA.4 and BA.5 possess additional substitutions in the spike protein, which play a key role in viral entry, raising concerns that the replication capacity and pathogenicity of BA.4 and BA.5 are higher than those of BA.2. Here we have evaluated the replicative ability and pathogenicity of BA.4 and BA.5 isolates in wild-type Syrian hamsters, human ACE2 (hACE2) transgenic hamsters and hACE2 transgenic mice. We have observed no obvious differences among BA.2, BA.4 and BA.5 isolates in growth ability or pathogenicity in rodent models, and less pathogenicity compared to a previously circulating Delta (B.1.617.2 lineage) isolate. In addition, in vivo competition experiments revealed that BA.5 outcompeted BA.2 in hamsters, whereas BA.4 and BA.2 exhibited similar fitness. These findings suggest that BA.4 and BA.5 clinical isolates have similar pathogenicity to BA.2 in rodents and that BA.5 possesses viral fitness superior to that of BA.2.

Characterization and antiviral susceptibility of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.2.

The recent emergence of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron (B.1.1.529 lineage) variants possessing numerous mutations has raised concerns of decreased effectiveness of current vaccines, therapeutic monoclonal antibodies and antiviral drugs for COVID-19 against these variants1,2. The original Omicron lineage, BA.1, prevailed in many countries, but more recently, BA.2 has become dominant in at least 68 countries3. Here we evaluated the replicative ability and pathogenicity of authentic infectious BA.2 isolates in immunocompetent and human ACE2-expressing mice and hamsters. In contrast to recent data with chimeric, recombinant SARS-CoV-2 strains expressing the spike proteins of BA.1 and BA.2 on an ancestral WK-521 backbone4, we observed similar infectivity and pathogenicity in mice and hamsters for BA.2 and BA.1, and less pathogenicity compared with early SARS-CoV-2 strains. We also observed a marked and significant reduction in the neutralizing activity of plasma from individuals who had recovered from COVID-19 and vaccine recipients against BA.2 compared to ancestral and Delta variant strains. In addition, we found that some therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (REGN10987 plus REGN10933, COV2-2196 plus COV2-2130, and S309) and antiviral drugs (molnupiravir, nirmatrelvir and S-217622) can restrict viral infection in the respiratory organs of BA.2-infected hamsters. These findings suggest that the replication and pathogenicity of BA.2 is similar to that of BA.1 in rodents and that several therapeutic monoclonal antibodies and antiviral compounds are effective against Omicron BA.2 variants.

SARS-CoV-2 Omicron virus causes attenuated disease in mice and hamsters.

The recent emergence of B.1.1.529, the Omicron variant1,2, has raised concerns of escape from protection by vaccines and therapeutic antibodies. A key test for potential countermeasures against B.1.1.529 is their activity in preclinical rodent models of respiratory tract disease. Here, using the collaborative network of the SARS-CoV-2 Assessment of Viral Evolution (SAVE) programme of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), we evaluated the ability of several B.1.1.529 isolates to cause infection and disease in immunocompetent and human ACE2 (hACE2)-expressing mice and hamsters. Despite modelling data indicating that B.1.1.529 spike can bind more avidly to mouse ACE2 (refs. 3,4), we observed less infection by B.1.1.529 in 129, C57BL/6, BALB/c and K18-hACE2 transgenic mice than by previous SARS-CoV-2 variants, with limited weight loss and lower viral burden in the upper and lower respiratory tracts. In wild-type and hACE2 transgenic hamsters, lung infection, clinical disease and pathology with B.1.1.529 were also milder than with historical isolates or other SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern. Overall, experiments from the SAVE/NIAID network with several B.1.1.529 isolates demonstrate attenuated lung disease in rodents, which parallels preliminary human clinical data.

Single-Cell Analyses Reveal Megakaryocyte-Biased Hematopoiesis in Myelofibrosis and Identify Mutant Clone-Specific Targets.

Myelofibrosis is a severe myeloproliferative neoplasm characterized by increased numbers of abnormal bone marrow megakaryocytes that induce fibrosis, destroying the hematopoietic microenvironment. To determine the cellular and molecular basis for aberrant megakaryopoiesis in myelofibrosis, we performed single-cell transcriptome profiling of 135,929 CD34+ lineage- hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs), single-cell proteomics, genomics, and functional assays. We identified a bias toward megakaryocyte differentiation apparent from early multipotent stem cells in myelofibrosis and associated aberrant molecular signatures. A sub-fraction of myelofibrosis megakaryocyte progenitors (MkPs) are transcriptionally similar to healthy-donor MkPs, but the majority are disease specific, with distinct populations expressing fibrosis- and proliferation-associated genes. Mutant-clone HSPCs have increased expression of megakaryocyte-associated genes compared to wild-type HSPCs, and we provide early validation of G6B as a potential immunotherapy target. Our study paves the way for selective targeting of the myelofibrosis clone and illustrates the power of single-cell multi-omics to discover tumor-specific therapeutic targets and mediators of tissue fibrosis.

Tumour DDR1 promotes collagen fibre alignment to instigate immune exclusion.

Immune exclusion predicts poor patient outcomes in multiple malignancies, including triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC)1. The extracellular matrix (ECM) contributes to immune exclusion2. However, strategies to reduce ECM abundance are largely ineffective or generate undesired outcomes3,4. Here we show that discoidin domain receptor 1 (DDR1), a collagen receptor with tyrosine kinase activity5, instigates immune exclusion by promoting collagen fibre alignment. Ablation of Ddr1 in tumours promotes the intratumoral penetration of T cells and obliterates tumour growth in mouse models of TNBC. Supporting this finding, in human TNBC the expression of DDR1 negatively correlates with the intratumoral abundance of anti-tumour T cells. The DDR1 extracellular domain (DDR1-ECD), but not its intracellular kinase domain, is required for immune exclusion. Membrane-untethered DDR1-ECD is sufficient to rescue the growth of Ddr1-knockout tumours in immunocompetent hosts. Mechanistically, the binding of DDR1-ECD to collagen enforces aligned collagen fibres and obstructs immune infiltration. ECD-neutralizing antibodies disrupt collagen fibre alignment, mitigate immune exclusion and inhibit tumour growth in immunocompetent hosts. Together, our findings identify a mechanism for immune exclusion and suggest an immunotherapeutic target for increasing immune accessibility through reconfiguration of the tumour ECM.

R-loop functions in Brca1-associated mammary tumorigenesis.

Deleterious accumulation of R-loops, a DNA-RNA hybrid structure, contributes to genome instability. They are associated with BRCA1 mutation-related breast cancer, an estrogen receptor α negative (ERα-) tumor type originating from luminal progenitor cells. However, a presumed causality of R-loops in tumorigenesis has not been established in vivo. Here, we overexpress mouse Rnaseh1 (Rh1-OE) in vivo to remove accumulated R-loops in Brca1-deficient mouse mammary epithelium (BKO). R-loop removal exacerbates DNA replication stress in proliferating BKO mammary epithelial cells, with little effect on homology-directed repair of double-strand breaks following ionizing radiation. Compared to their BKO counterparts, BKO-Rh1-OE mammary glands contain fewer luminal progenitor cells but more mature luminal cells. Despite a similar incidence of spontaneous mammary tumors in BKO and BKO-Rh1-OE mice, a significant percentage of BKO-Rh1-OE tumors express ERα and progesterone receptor. Our results suggest that rather than directly elevating the overall tumor incidence, R-loops influence the mammary tumor subtype by shaping the cell of origin for Brca1 tumors.