Characterization of a Bacillus subtilis S-16 Thiazole-Synthesis-Related Gene thiS Knockout and Antimicrobial Activity Analysis.

Bacillus subtilis S-16 isolated from sunflower-rhizosphere soil is an effective biocontrol agent for preventing soilborne diseases in plants. Previous research revealed that the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by the S-16 strain have strong inhibitory effects on Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. The identification of the VOCs of S-16 using gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) revealed 35 compounds. Technical-grade formulations of four of these compounds were chosen for further study: 2-pentadecanone, 6,10,14-trimethyl-2-octanone, 2-methyl benzothiazole (2-MBTH), and heptadecane. The major constituent, 2-MBTH, plays an important role in the antifungal activity of the VOCs of S-16 against the growth of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of the thiS gene's deletion on the 2-MBTH production and to conduct an antimicrobial activity analysis of the Bacillus subtilis S-16. The thiazole-biosynthesis gene was deleted via homologous recombination, after which the contents of 2-MBTH in the wild-type and mutant S-16 strains were analyzed using GC-MS. The antifungal effects of the VOCs were determined using a dual-culture technique. The morphological characteristics of the Sclerotinia sclerotiorum mycelia were examined via scanning-electron microscopy (SEM). Additionally, the lesion areas on the sunflower leaves with and without treatment with the VOCs from the wild-type and mutant strains were measured to explore the effects of the VOCs on the virulence of the Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Moreover, the effects of the VOCs on the sclerotial production were assessed. We showed that the mutant strain produced less 2-MBTH. The ability of the VOCs produced by the mutant strain to inhibit the growth of the mycelia was also reduced. The SEM observation showed that the VOCs released by the mutant strain also caused more flaccid and gapped hyphae in the Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. The Sclerotinia sclerotiorum treated by the VOCs produced by the mutant strains caused more damage to the leaves than that treated by the VOCs produced by the wild type and the mutant-strain-produced VOCs inhibited sclerotia formation less. The production of 2-MBTH and its antimicrobial activities were adversely affected to varying degrees by the deletion of thiS.

Formulation and Characterization of Matrine Oil Dispersion to Improve Droplet Wetting and Deposition.

The unreasonable use of chemical pesticides has caused serious damage to crops and the ecological environment. The botanical pesticide matrine has attracted attention as an environmentally friendly pesticide. Compared with traditional spraying methods, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) spraying has the advantages of safety, rapidity, uniform droplets, low dosages, and no terrain or crop restrictions. In this study, matrine OD was prepared according to the application requirements of flight prevention preparations using three different emulsifiers. The stability, wettability, particle size and distribution, and spraying performance of matrine OD were studied. The results indicated that when the amount of emulsifier was 8%, the three types of matrine OD had good stability. The stability, wettability, particle size and distribution, and spray performance of the suspension prepared using emulsifier VO/03 were better than the other two emulsifiers. Therefore, matrine OD prepared using 8% VO/03 could be used for ultra-low-volume sprays and aerial applications. In this study, we provide a theoretical basis and technical guidance to develop pesticide formulations for aerial applications.

Genomic and metabolic features of Bacillus cereus, inhibiting the growth of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum by synthesizing secondary metabolites.

We investigated the biocontrol mechanism of Bacillus cereus CF4-51 to find powerful microbes that effectively control Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. To assess its inhibitory effect on fungal growth, the plant pathogen (S. sclerotiorum) was co-cultured with Bacillus cereus. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to study the morphology of S. sclerotiorum treated with CF4-51 biofumigant. The expression of sclerotium formation-related genes was analyzed by qRT-PCR. We performed whole genome sequencing of CF4-51 by PacBio Sequel platform. Lipopeptides were extracted from strain CF4-51 according to the method of hydrochloric acid precipitation and methanol dissolution. The volatiles CF4-51 were identified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). We found that the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released by CF4-51 damaged the S. sclerotiorum hyphae and inhibited the formation of sclerotia. The qRT-PCR data revealed the down-regulated expression of the genes involved in sclerotial formation. Moreover, we analyzed the B. cereus CF4-51 genome and metabolites. The genome consisted of 5.35 Mb, with a GC content of 35.74%. An examination of the genome revealed the presence of several gene clusters for the biosynthesis of antibiotics, siderophores, and various other bioactive compounds, including those belonging to the NRPS-like, LAP, RIPP-like, NRPS, betalactone, CDPS, terpene, ladderane, ranthipeptide, and lanthipeptide (class II) categories. A gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis identified 45 VOCs produced by strain CF4-51. Among these, technical grade formulations of five were chosen for further study: 2-Pentadecanone, 6,10,14-trimethyl-,1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, bis(2-methylpropyl) ester, Dibutyl phthalate, Cyclododecane, Heptadecane. the five major constituents play important roles in the antifungal activity of the VOCs CF4-51 on the growth of S. sclerotiorum. The secondary metabolites produced by strain CF4-51are critical for the inhibition of S. sclerotiorum hyphal growth and sclerotial formation.

Occurrence and Distribution of Rhinoncus sibiricus (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea) and Its Preference for Two Buckwheat Species in China.

Rhinoncus sibiricus Faust, a major pest of buckwheat, has invaded the buckwheat cultivation areas of China for years. This pest was first found in Russia in 1940, causing great damage during the entire buckwheat-growing season. In China, there are few records on R. sibiricus, and studies regarding pest damage on buckwheat are unknown. The occurrence and distribution of this species in China is still not clear. We therefore conducted field surveys for 6 yr to identify the distribution range and the degree of pest damage caused by R. sibiricus in the buckwheat-planting areas of China and tested its preference for two Fagopyrum species in common garden experiments. The results showed that R. sibiricus had a larger distribution range in the Northern rather than the Southern part of China, and that pest damage was more serious in northern China. The pest preferred F. tataricum (Tartary buckwheat, Polygonales: Polygonaceae) over F. esculentum (Common buckwheat, Polygonales: Polygonaceae), but caused damage to both, indicating its potential for distribution in southern China. This study clarified the occurrence, distribution, and damage traits of R. sibiricus in the buckwheat cultivation areas of China, which will help explain the pest attack traits and inform strategies for pest control and prediction.

Hiseq Base Molecular Characterization of Soil Microbial Community, Diversity Structure, and Predictive Functional Profiling in Continuous Cucumber Planted Soil Affected by Diverse Cropping Systems in an Intensive Greenhouse Region of Northern China.

Cover crops are key determinants of the ecological stability and sustainability of continuous cropping soils. However, their agro-ecological role in differentially reshaping the microbiome structure and functioning under a degraded agroecosystem remains poorly investigated. Therefore, structural and metabolic changes in soil bacterial community composition in response to diverse plant species were assessed. Winter catch leafy vegetables crops were introduced as cover plants in a cucumber-fallow period. The results indicate that cover crop diversification promoted beneficial changes in soil chemical and biological attributes, which increased crop yields in a cucumber double-cropping system. Illumina high-throughput sequencing of 16S rRNA genes indicated that the bacterial community composition and diversity changed through changes in the soil properties. Principal component analysis (PCA) coupled with non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) analysis reveals that the cover planting shaped the soil microbiome more than the fallow planting (FC). Among different cropping systems, spinach-cucumber (SC) and non-heading Chinese cabbage-cucumber (NCCC) planting systems greatly induced higher soil nutrient function, biological activity, and bacterial diversity, thus resulting in higher cucumber yield. Quantitative analysis of linear discriminant analysis effect size (LEfSe) indicated that Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Acidobacteria were the potentially functional and active soil microbial taxa. Rhizospheres of NCCC, leaf lettuce-cucumber (LLC), coriander-cucumber (CC), and SC planting systems created hotspots for metabolic capabilities of abundant functional genes, compared to FC. In addition, the predictive metabolic characteristics (metabolism and detoxification) associated with host-plant symbiosis could be an important ecological signal that provides direct evidence of mediation of soil structure stability. Interestingly, the plant density of non-heading Chinese cabbage and spinach species was capable of reducing the adverse effect of arsenic (As) accumulation by increasing the function of the arsenate reductase pathway. Redundancy analysis (RDA) indicated that the relative abundance of the core microbiome can be directly and indirectly influenced by certain environmental determinants. These short-term findings stress the importance of studying cover cropping systems as an efficient biological tool to protect the ecological environment. Therefore, we can speculate that leafy crop diversification is socially acceptable, economically justifiable, and ecologically adaptable to meet the urgent demand for intensive cropping systems to promote positive feedback between crop-soil sustainable intensification.

Round fruit shape in WI7239 cucumber is controlled by two interacting quantitative trait loci with one putatively encoding a tomato SUN homolog.

KEY MESSAGE: QTL analysis revealed two interacting loci, FS1.2 and FS2.1, underlying round fruit shape in WI7239 cucumber; CsSUN , a homolog of tomato fruit shape gene SUN , was a candidate for FS1.2. Fruit size is an important quality and yield trait in cucumber, but its genetic basis remains poorly understood. Here we reported QTL mapping results on fruit size with segregating populations derived from the cross between WI7238 (long fruit) and WI7239 (round fruit) inbred cucumber lines. Phenotypic data of fruit length and diameter were collected at anthesis, immature and mature fruit stages in four environments. Ten major-effect QTL were detected for six traits; synthesis of information from these QTL supported two genes, FS1.2 and FS2.1, underlying fruit size variation in the examined populations. Under the two-gene model, deviation from expected segregation ratio in fruit length and diameter among segregating populations was observed, which could be explained mainly by the interactions between FS1.2 and FS2.1, and segregation distortion in the FS2.1 region. Genome-wide candidate gene search identified CsSUN, a homolog of the tomato fruit shape gene SUN, as the candidate for FS1.2. The round-fruited WI7239 had a 161-bp deletion in the first exon of CsSUN, and its expression in WI7239 was significantly lower than that in WI7238. A marker derived from this deletion was mapped at the peak location of FS1.2 in QTL analysis. Comparative analysis suggested the melon gene CmSUN-14, a homolog of CsSUN as a candidate of the fl2/fd2/fw2 QTL in melon. This study revealed the unique genetic architecture of round fruit shape in WI7239 cucumber. It also highlights the power of QTL analysis for traits with a simple genetic basis but their expression is complicated by other factors.

Growth of wheat and lettuce and enzyme activities of soils under garlic stalk decomposition for different durations.

BACKGROUND: Garlic (Allium sativum L.) stalk is a byproduct of garlic production that is normally thought of as waste but is now considered a useful biological resource. It is necessary to utilize this resource efficiently and reasonably to reduce environmental pollution and achieve sustainable agricultural development. RESULTS: The effect of garlic stalk decomposed for different durations was investigated in this study using wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and lettuce (Lactuca sativa var. crispa L.) as test plants. Garlic stalk in early stages of decomposition inhibited the shoot and root lengths of wheat and lettuce, but it promoted the shoot and root lengths in later stages; longer durations of garlic stalk decomposition significantly increased the shoot and root fresh weights of wheat and lettuce, whereas shorter decomposing durations significantly decreased the shoot and root fresh weights; and garlic stalk at different decomposition durations increased the activities of urease, sucrase and alkaline phosphatase in soil where wheat or lettuce was planted. CONCLUSION: Garlic stalk decomposed for 30 or 40 days could promote the growth of wheat and lettuce plants as well as soil enzyme activities. These results may provide a scientific basis for the study and application of garlic stalk. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Map-based cloning, identification and characterization of the w gene controlling white immature fruit color in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.).

KEY MESSAGE: A single-nucleotide insertion resulted in a premature stop codon that is responsible for white immature fruit color in cucumber. Despite our previous progress in the mapping of the gene controlling white color in immature cucumber fruit and the identification of candidate genes, the specific gene that governs chlorophyll metabolism and its regulatory mechanism remains unknown. Here, we generated a mapping population consisting of 9497 F2 plants to delimit the controlling gene to an 8.2-kb physical interval that defines a sole candidate gene, APRR2. Sequencing the full-length DNA and cDNA of APRR2 allowed for identification of an allele, aprr2, encoding a truncated 101-amino acid protein due to a frameshift mutation and a premature stop codon. Gene structure prediction indicated that these 101 residues are located in a domain necessary for the function of the protein. The expression patterns of APRR2 were entirely consistent with the visual changes in green color intensity during fruit development. A microscopic observation of the fruit pericarp revealed fewer chloroplasts and a lower chloroplast chlorophyll storage capacity in Q24 (white) than in Q30 (green). A single-base insertion in the white color gene w, which leads to a premature stop codon, is hypothesized to have disabled the function of this gene in chlorophyll accumulation and chloroplast development. These findings contribute to basic research and the genetic improvement of fruit color.

Fine genetic mapping of the white immature fruit color gene w to a 33.0-kb region in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.).

KEY MESSAGE: The white immature fruit color gene w was rapidly mapped to a 33.0-kb region to identify a valuable candidate gene that encodes peroxidase. The skin color of immature fruit is a crucial external trait of cucumbers, and white skin is shared by limited numbers of commercial cultivars. Herein, one BC1 population and two F2 segregating populations were constructed using four inbred parental lines (WD3 × B-2-2 and Q30 × Q24) to investigate the inheritance patterns and chromosomal locations of immature fruit color genes in cucumbers. Consequently, a single recessive gene, w, was identified that controls white immature fruit color. A total of 526 markers, which were derived from published genetic maps, two reference cucumber genomes ("9930" and GY14), and two parents (Q30 and Q24) for which whole-genome sequence information is available, were used to map the target gene w to a 33.0-kb region flanked by two SNP-based markers, ASPCR39262 and ASPCR39229, which are physically located at 39262450 and 39229482 of chromosome 3 ("9930" draft genome assembly), respectively. Gene prediction indicated that four potential genes were located in the target region. One gene that encodes peroxidase is likely to be a valuable candidate gene because quantitative real-time PCR revealed an eightfold difference in its transcriptional level, and several amino acid variations were found when the deduced amino acid sequence was aligned. A co-segregating marker was used synergistically to test its ability to predict the skin colors of 83 dark green/white germplasms, and the validity of its utility in marker-assisted selection was confirmed. Fine mapping of this locus will assist in cloning the gene and in marker-assisted breeding to develop dark green/white cucumber cultivars.

Predicting potential distribution of the Rhinoncus sibiricus under climatic in China using MaxEnt.

In recent years, buckwheat (Fagopyrum spp.) is being increasingly damaged by the Siberian tortoise beetle (Rhinoncus sibiricus Faust). Adults and nymphs feed on leaf tissues and caulicles, thus damaging its stems and leaves. In this study, we investigated the habits, distribution, and environmental impact of R. sibiricus using MaxEnt, an ecological niche model. Geographic information about the infestation site from previous field surveys and climatic data from 2013 to 2018 were organized and optimized using R. The impact factors were calculated using MaxEnt software. The results indicate that population fluctuations in R. sibiricus are related to changes in temperature, humidity, and their spatial distribution. Under current climatic conditions, R. sibiricus is mainly distributed in northern China, with sporadic distribution in south-western China. The values for a survival probability threshold > 0.3 were: precipitation during the wettest month (bio13), 70.31-137.56 mm; mean temperature of the coldest quarter (bio11), -15.00-0.85°C; mean temperature of the warmest quarter (bio10), 11.88-23.16°C; precipitation during the coldest quarter (biol9), 0-24.39 mm. The main factors contributing > 70% to the models were precipitation during the wettest month and coldest quarter, and mean temperature during the warmest and coldest quarters. Under both future climate models, the center of the fitness zone moves northward. Our results will be useful in guiding administrative decisions and support farmers interested in establishing control and management strategies for R. sibiricus. This study could also serve as a reference for future research on other invasive pests.

The effect of cultivar, sowing date and transplant location in field on bolting of Welsh onion (Allium fistulosum L.).

BACKGROUND: Bolting reduces the quality and commercial yield of Welsh onion (Allium fistulosum L.) in production. However, seed production is directly dependent on flower induction and bolting. The Welsh onion belongs to the green plant vernalisation type, specific seedling characteristics and sufficient accumulated time at low temperature are indispensible for the completion of its vernalisation process. Only if these conditions for vernalisation are fulfilled, the plants will bolt in the following year. The present investigation evaluated the effects of cultivar, sowing date and transplant location in field on the bolting of Welsh onion at the Horticultural Farm of the College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shannxi Province, China in two succeeding production years: 2010-2011 and 2011-2012. A strip split plot layout within a randomised complete block design with three replications was used. RESULTS: The results revealed that all three factors (cultivar, sowing date and transplant location) and their interaction had significant effects on the initiation and final rate of bolting observed by 30 April. The earliest bolting date (14 February, 2011 and 15 February, 2012) and the highest bolting rate (100% in 2011 and 62% in 2012) occurred when the JinGuan cultivar was sown on 20 August and transplanted in a plastic tunnel, whereas the latest date and lowest rate (no bolting observed until 30 April) of bolting occurred when the XiaHei cultivar was sown on 29 September and transplanted in an open field. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that we can control bolting in Welsh onion production by choosing an appropriate cultivar, sowing date and transplant location. Choosing a late bolting cultivar, such as cultivar XiaHei, sowing around October, and transplanting in the open field can significantly delay bolting, while a sowing date in late August should be selected for seed production, and the seedlings should be transplanted in a plastic tunnel to accelerate development of the flower buds.

Isolation, expression, and characterization of a hydroperoxide lyase gene from cucumber.

A full-length cDNA coding for hydroperoxide lyase (CsHPL) was isolated from cucumber fruits of No. 26 (Southern China type) and No.14-1 (Northern China type), which differed significantly in fruit flavor. The deduced amino acid sequences of CsHPL from both lines show the same and significant similarity to known plant HPLs and contain typical conserved domains of HPLs. The recombinant CsHPL was confirmed to have 9/13-HPL enzymatic activity. Gene expression levels of CsHPL were measured in different organs, especially in fruits of different development stages of both lines. The HPL activities of fruit were identified basing on the catalytic action of crude enzyme extracts incubating with 13-HPOD (13-hydroperoxy-(9Z,12E)-octadecadienoic acid) and 13-HPOD + 9-HPOD (9-hydroperoxy-(10E,12Z)-octadecadienoic acid), and volatile reaction products were analyzed by GC-MS (gas chromatography-mass spectrometry). CsHPL gene expression in No. 26 fruit occurred earlier than that of total HPL enzyme activity and 13-HPL enzyme activity, and that in No. 14-1 fruit was consistent with total HPL enzyme activity and 9-HPL enzyme activity. 13-HPL enzyme activities decreased significantly and the 9-HPL enzyme activities increased significantly with fruit ripening in both lines, which accounted for the higher content of C6 aldehydes at 0-6 day post-anthesis (dpa) and higher content of C9 aldehydes at 9-12 dpa.

In vitro Induction and Phenotypic Variations of Autotetraploid Garlic (Allium sativum L.) With Dwarfism.

Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is a compelling horticultural crop with high culinary and therapeutic values. Commercial garlic varieties are male-sterile and propagated asexually from individual cloves or bulbils. Consequently, its main breeding strategy has been confined to the time-consuming and inefficient selection approach from the existing germplasm. Polyploidy, meanwhile, plays a prominent role in conferring plants various changes in morphological, physiological, and ecological properties. Artificial polyploidy induction has gained pivotal attention to generate new genotype for further crop improvement as a mutational breeding method. In our study, efficient and reliable in vitro induction protocols of autotetraploid garlic were established by applying different antimitotic agents based on high-frequency direct shoot organogenesis initiated from inflorescence explant. The explants were cultured on solid medium containing various concentrations of colchicine or oryzalin for different duration days. Afterward, the ploidy levels of regenerated plantlets with stable and distinguished characters were confirmed by flow cytometry and chromosome counting. The colchicine concentration at 0.2% (w/v) combined with culture duration for 20 days was most efficient (the autotetraploid induction rate was 21.8%) compared to the induction rate of 4.3% using oryzalin at 60 µmol L-1 for 20 days. No polymorphic bands were detected by simple sequence repeat analysis between tetraploid and diploid plantlets. The tetraploids exhibited a stable and remarkable dwarfness effect rarely reported in artificial polyploidization among wide range of phenotypic variations. There are both morphological and cytological changes including extremely reduced plant height, thickening and broadening of leaves, disappearance of pseudostem, density reduction, and augmented width of stomatal. Furthermore, the level of phytohormones, including, indole propionic acid, gibberellin, brassinolide, zeatin, dihydrozeatin, and methyl jasmonate, was significantly lower in tetraploids than those in diploid controls, except indole acetic acid and abscisic acid, which could partly explain the dwarfness in hormonal regulation aspect. Moreover, as the typical secondary metabolites of garlic, organosulfur compounds including allicin, diallyl disulfide, and diallyl trisulfide accumulated a higher content significantly in tetraploids. The obtained dwarf genotype of autotetraploid garlic could bring new perspectives for the artificial polyploids breeding and be implemented as a new germplasm to facilitate investigation into whole-genome doubling consequences.

Melatonin Rescues Photosynthesis and Triggers Antioxidant Defense Response in Cucumis sativus Plants Challenged by Low Temperature and High Humidity.

Environmental factors such as low temperature (LT) and high humidity (HH) hinder plant growth and development in plastic tunnels and solar greenhouses in the cold season. In this study, we examined the effect of melatonin (MT) on shoot-based tolerance to LT and HH conditions in cucumber (Cucumis sativus) seedlings and explored its underlying mechanism. LT and HH stress inhibited growth and biomass accumulation, produced leaf chlorosis, led to oxidative stress, lowered chlorophyll and carotenoid contents, reduced photosynthetic and photosystem II (PSII) activities, and increased the level of intercellular carbon dioxide and the non-photochemical quenching of photosystem I (PSI) and PSII. However, foliar application of MT significantly improved the morphological indices and photosynthetic efficiency of cucumber seedlings, which entailed the elevation of electrolyte leakage, lipid peroxidation, and reactive oxygen species accumulation by boosting the antioxidant enzyme defense system under LT and HH conditions. Additionally, the measurement of nitrogen (N), magnesium (Mg), and iron (Fe) contents in roots and leaves showed that MT significantly augmented the nutrient uptake of cucumber seedlings exposed to LT and HH stresses. Furthermore, MT application increased the transcripts levels of genes encoding antioxidant enzymes under LT and HH conditions, whereas treatment with LT and HH suppressed these genes, suggesting that MT application increases the LT and HH tolerance of cucumber seedlings. Overall, our results suggest that MT application increases the tolerance of cucumber seedlings to LT and HH stress by enhancing the plant morphometric parameters, regulating PSI and PSII, and activating the antioxidant defense mechanism. Thus, the exogenous application of MT could be potentially employed as a strategy to improve the LT and HH tolerance of cucumber.

Genomic Prediction and the Practical Breeding of 12 Quantitative-Inherited Traits in Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.).

Genomic prediction is an effective way for predicting complex traits, and it is becoming more essential in horticultural crop breeding. In this study, we applied genomic prediction in the breeding of cucumber plants. Eighty-one cucumber inbred lines were genotyped and 16,662 markers were identified to represent the genetic background of cucumber. Two populations, namely, diallel cross population and North Carolina II population, having 268 combinations in total were constructed from 81 inbred lines. Twelve cucumber commercial traits of these two populations in autumn 2018, spring 2019, and spring 2020 were collected for model training. General combining ability (GCA) models under five-fold cross-validation and cross-population validation were applied to model validation. Finally, the GCA performance of 81 inbred lines was estimated. Our results showed that the predictive ability for 12 traits ranged from 0.38 to 0.95 under the cross-validation strategy and ranged from -0.38 to 0.88 under the cross-population strategy. Besides, GCA models containing non-additive effects had significantly better performance than the pure additive GCA model for most of the investigated traits. Furthermore, there were a relatively higher proportion of additive-by-additive genetic variance components estimated by the full GCA model, especially for lower heritability traits, but the proportion of dominant genetic variance components was relatively small and stable. Our findings concluded that a genomic prediction protocol based on the GCA model theoretical framework can be applied to cucumber breeding, and it can also provide a reference for the single-cross breeding system of other crops.

Cucumber Fruit Size and Shape Variations Explored from the Aspects of Morphology, Histology, and Endogenous Hormones.

Fruit size and shape are important qualities and yield traits in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), but the factors that influence fruit size and shape remain to be explored. In this study, we investigated the dynamic changes of fruit size and shape from the aspects of morphology, cellular levels and endogenous hormones for nine typical cucumber inbred lines. The results show that fruit length had a strong positive correlation to the cell number in the longitudinal section of fruit throughout the four stages of 0, 6, 12, and 30 DAA (days after anthesis). However, the significant negative correlations were found between fruit length and the fruit cell size at 12 and 30 DAA. Furthermore, fruit diameter was positively correlated to the cell number in the cross section at all the investigated fruit growth stages. The indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) content showed significant positive correlations to the fruit length at all fruit growth stages of -6, -3, 0, 3, 6, 9 and 12 DAA, but IAA content and fruit diameter showed significant negative correlations for all the stages except for at -6 DAA. The trans-zeatin riboside (tZR), zeatin (ZT), gibberellic acid (GA3) and jasmonic acid (JA) content had a positive or negative correlation with fruit length or diameter only at certain stages. Neither fruit length nor diameter had significant correlations to abscisic acid (ABA) content. These results indicate that variations in fruit size and shape of different cucumber inbred lines mainly result from the differences in fruit cell number and endogenous IAA content. The present work is the first to propose cucumber fruit size and shape changes from the combined aspects of morphology, cellular levels, and endogenous hormones.

A Chromosome-Level Genome Assembly of Garlic (Allium sativum) Provides Insights into Genome Evolution and Allicin Biosynthesis.

Garlic, an economically important vegetable, spice, and medicinal crop, produces highly enlarged bulbs and unique organosulfur compounds. Here, we report a chromosome-level genome assembly for garlic, with a total size of approximately 16.24 Gb, as well as the annotation of 57 561 predicted protein-coding genes, making garlic the first Allium species with a sequenced genome. Analysis of this garlic genome assembly reveals a recent burst of transposable elements, explaining the substantial expansion of the garlic genome. We examined the evolution of certain genes associated with the biosynthesis of allicin and inulin neoseries-type fructans, and provided new insights into the biosynthesis of these two compounds. Furthermore, a large-scale transcriptome was produced to characterize the expression patterns of garlic genes in different tissues and at various growth stages of enlarged bulbs. The reference genome and large-scale transcriptome data generated in this study provide valuable new resources for research on garlic biology and breeding.

The Garlic Allelochemical Diallyl Disulfide Affects Tomato Root Growth by Influencing Cell Division, Phytohormone Balance and Expansin Gene Expression.

Diallyl disulfide (DADS) is a volatile organosulfur compound derived from garlic (Allium sativum L.), and it is known as an allelochemical responsible for the strong allelopathic potential of garlic. The anticancer properties of DADS have been studied in experimental animals and various types of cancer cells, but to date, little is known about its mode of action as an allelochemical at the cytological level. The current research presents further studies on the effects of DADS on tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) seed germination, root growth, mitotic index, and cell size in root meristem, as well as the phytohormone levels and expression profile of auxin biosynthesis genes (FZYs), auxin transport genes (SlPINs), and expansin genes (EXPs) in tomato root. The results showed a biphasic, dose-dependent effect on tomato seed germination and root growth under different DADS concentrations. Lower concentrations (0.01-0.62 mM) of DADS significantly promoted root growth, whereas higher levels (6.20-20.67 mM) showed inhibitory effects. Cytological observations showed that the cell length of root meristem was increased and that the mitotic activity of meristematic cells in seedling root tips was enhanced at lower concentrations of DADS. In contrast, DADS at higher concentrations inhibited root growth by affecting both the length and division activity of meristematic cells. However, the cell width of the root meristem was not affected. Additionally, DADS increased the IAA and ZR contents of seedling roots in a dose-dependent manner. The influence on IAA content may be mediated by the up-regulation of FZYs and PINs. Further investigation into the underlying mechanism revealed that the expression levels of tomato EXPs were significantly affected by DADS. The expression levels of EXPB2 and beta-expansin precursor were increased after 3 d, and those of EXP1, EXPB3 and EXLB1 were increased after 5 d of DADS treatment (0.41 mM). This result suggests that tomato root growth may be regulated by multiple expansin genes at different developmental stages. Therefore, we conclude that the effects of DADS on the root growth of tomato seedlings are likely caused by changes associated with cell division, phytohormones, and the expression levels of expansin genes.

Transcriptomic insights into the allelopathic effects of the garlic allelochemical diallyl disulfide on tomato roots.

Garlic is an allelopathic crop that can alleviate the obstacles to continuous cropping of vegetable crops. Diallyl disulfide (DADS), one of the most important allelochemicals in garlic, promotes tomato root growth. Therefore, the global transcriptome profiles of DADS-treated tomato roots over time were investigated to reveal the potential growth-promoting mechanisms. We detected 1828, 1296 and 1190 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the 4, 24 and 48 h samples, respectively. Most DEGs involved in assimilatory sulfate reduction and glutathione metabolism were up-regulated after short-term (4 h) DADS treatment. In addition, increased activity of defensive enzymes and up-regulation of six peroxidase genes were observed, suggesting that DADS could induce tomato resistance. In plant-pathogen interactions, DEGs related to calcium signaling were primarily inhibited, while those encoding pathogenesis-related proteins were primarily up-regulated. Although plant hormone synthesis and signal transduction were both significantly affected by DADS, the expression trends of the genes in these two pathways were conflicting. This research provides comprehensive information concerning the changes in the tomato root transcriptome affected by DADS and may help direct further studies on DADS-responsive genes to enhance the current understanding of the mechanisms by which DADS alleviates the obstacles to continuous cropping.

Response of garlic (Allium sativum L.) bolting and bulbing to temperature and photoperiod treatments.

This research was conducted to evaluate the effect of temperature and photoperiod treatments on the bolting and bulb formation of three local garlic cultivars (cvs) in two consecutive years. Naturally vernalized plants of cvs G107, G025 and G064 were transplanted into growth chambers and subjected to various combinations of temperature [T15/10, 15°C/10°C; T20/15, 20°C/15°C and T25/18, 25°C/18°C (day/night)] and photoperiod (L8, 8 h and L14,14 h) treatments. Plant growth, endogenous phytohormone and methyl jasmonate (MeJA) levels, along with the bolting and yield of garlic were evaluated. The experimental results from two consecutive years indicated that higher temperature (20°C or 25°C) and longer photoperiod (14 h) treatments significantly enhanced the garlic bolting, bulbing and cloving with a shorter growth period and a higher bulb weight. Moreover, the endogenous phytohormone and MeJA levels in the test plants were significantly increased by the higher temperature (25°C for the phytohormone level; 20°C for the MeJA level) and longer photoperiod [14 h, except for abscisic acid (ABA), which had the highest level at 8 h] conditions and were decreased by the lowest test temperature (15°C) and shorter photoperiod (8 h, except for ABA) conditions. This response coincided with that of the bulbing index, bolting rate, growth period and bulb weight. In addition, plants treated under the conditions of 20°C/15°C-14 h and 25°C/18°C-14 h produced the highest phytohormone levels (except for ABA) for cvs G025 and G064, respectively, and showed the best bolting and bulbing behavior. It is reasonable to assume that endogenous phytohormone (especially gibberellic acid) and MeJA levels are highly related to garlic bolting and bulbing, which might lead to the different responses of the three studied cultivars to the combination of temperature and photoperiod treatments. Furthermore, cvs G107 and G025 bolt well and have better bulb formation under 20°C-14 h conditions, while the conditions of 25°C-14 h are critical for the bolting and bulbing of cv. G064.