Dynamic chromatin accessibility licenses STAT5- and STAT6-dependent innate-like function of TH9 cells to promote allergic inflammation.

Allergic diseases are a major global health issue. Interleukin (IL)-9-producing helper T (TH9) cells promote allergic inflammation, yet TH9 cell effector functions are incompletely understood because their lineage instability makes them challenging to study. Here we found that resting TH9 cells produced IL-9 independently of T cell receptor (TCR) restimulation, due to STAT5- and STAT6-dependent bystander activation. This mechanism was seen in circulating cells from allergic patients and was restricted to recently activated cells. STAT5-dependent Il9/IL9 regulatory elements underwent remodeling over time, inactivating the locus. A broader 'allergic TH9' transcriptomic and epigenomic program was also unstable. In vivo, TH9 cells induced airway inflammation via TCR-independent, STAT-dependent mechanisms. In allergic patients, TH9 cell expansion was associated with responsiveness to JAK inhibitors. These findings suggest that TH9 cell instability is a negative checkpoint on bystander activation that breaks down in allergy and that JAK inhibitors should be considered for allergic patients with TH9 cell expansion.

MicroRNA-221 and -222 modulate intestinal inflammatory Th17 cell response as negative feedback regulators downstream of interleukin-23.

MicroRNAs are important regulators of immune responses. Here, we show miR-221 and miR-222 modulate the intestinal Th17 cell response. Expression of miR-221 and miR-222 was induced by proinflammatory cytokines and repressed by the cytokine TGF-ß. Molecular targets of miR-221 and miR-222 included Maf and Il23r, and loss of miR-221 and miR-222 expression shifted the transcriptomic spectrum of intestinal Th17 cells to a proinflammatory signature. Although the loss of miR-221 and miR-222 was tolerated for maintaining intestinal Th17 cell homeostasis in healthy mice, Th17 cells lacking miR-221 and miR-222 expanded more efficiently in response to IL-23. Both global and T cell-specific deletion of miR-221 and miR-222 rendered mice prone to mucosal barrier damage. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that miR-221 and miR-222 are an integral part of intestinal Th17 cell response that are induced after IL-23 stimulation to constrain the magnitude of proinflammatory response.

Neuropeptide CGRP Limits Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cell Responses and Constrains Type 2 Inflammation.

Innate lymphocytes maintain tissue homeostasis at mucosal barriers, with group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) producing type 2 cytokines and controlling helminth infection. While the molecular understanding of ILC2 responses has advanced, the complexity of microenvironmental factors impacting ILC2s is becoming increasingly apparent. Herein, we used single-cell analysis to explore the diversity of gene expression among lung lymphocytes during helminth infection. Following infection, we identified a subset of ILC2s that preferentially expressed Il5-encoding interleukin (IL)-5, together with Calca-encoding calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) and its cognate receptor components. CGRP in concert with IL-33 and neuromedin U (NMU) supported IL-5 but constrained IL-13 expression and ILC2 proliferation. Without CGRP signaling, ILC2 responses and worm expulsion were enhanced. Collectively, these data point to CGRP as a context-dependent negative regulatory factor that shapes innate lymphocyte responses to alarmins and neuropeptides during type 2 innate immune responses.

Retinoic Acid Receptor Alpha Represses a Th9 Transcriptional and Epigenomic Program to Reduce Allergic Pathology.

CD4+ T helper (Th) differentiation is regulated by diverse inputs, including the vitamin A metabolite retinoic acid (RA). RA acts through its receptor RARα to repress transcription of inflammatory cytokines, but is also essential for Th-mediated immunity, indicating complex effects of RA on Th specification and the outcome of the immune response. We examined the impact of RA on the genome-wide transcriptional response during Th differentiation to multiple subsets. RA effects were subset-selective and were most significant in Th9 cells. RA globally antagonized Th9-promoting transcription factors and inhibited Th9 differentiation. RA directly targeted the extended Il9 locus and broadly modified the Th9 epigenome through RARα. RA-RARα activity limited murine Th9-associated pulmonary inflammation, and human allergic inflammation was associated with reduced expression of RA target genes. Thus, repression of the Th9 program is a major function of RA-RARα signaling in Th differentiation, arguing for a role for RA in interleukin 9 (IL-9) related diseases.

The ever-expanding role of cytokine receptor DR3 in T cells.

Death Receptor 3 (DR3) is a cytokine receptor of the Tumor Necrosis Factor receptor superfamily that plays a multifaceted role in both innate and adaptive immunity. Based on the death domain motif in its cytosolic tail, DR3 had been proposed and functionally affirmed as a trigger of apoptosis. Further studies, however, also revealed roles of DR3 in other cellular pathways, including inflammation, survival, and proliferation. DR3 is expressed in various cell types, including T cells, B cells, innate lymphocytes, myeloid cells, fibroblasts, and even outside the immune system. Because DR3 is mainly expressed on T cells, DR3-mediated immune perturbations leading to autoimmunity and other diseases were mostly attributed to DR3 activation of T cells. However, which T cell subset and what T effector functions are controlled by DR3 to drive these processes remain incompletely understood. DR3 engagement was previously found to alter CD4 T helper subset differentiation, expand the Foxp3+ Treg cell pool, and maintain intraepithelial γδ T cells in the gut. Recent studies further unveiled a previously unacknowledged aspect of DR3 in regulating innate-like invariant NKT (iNKT) cell activation, expanding the scope of DR3-mediated immunity in T lineage cells. Importantly, in the context of iNKT cells, DR3 ligation exerted costimulatory effects in agonistic TCR signaling, unveiling a new regulatory framework in T cell activation and proliferation. The current review is aimed at summarizing such recent findings on the role of DR3 on conventional T cells and innate-like T cells and discussing them in the context of immunopathogenesis.

The cytokine receptor DR3 identifies and promotes the activation of thymic NKT17 cells.

Invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells correspond to a population of thymus-generated T cells with innate-like characteristics and effector functions. Among the various iNKT subsets, NKT17 is the only subset that produces the proinflammatory cytokine IL-17. But, how NKT17 cells acquire this ability and what would selectively trigger their activation remain incompletely understood. Here, we identified the cytokine receptor DR3 being specifically expressed on thymic NKT17 cells and mostly absent on other thymic iNKT subsets. Moreover, DR3 ligation promoted the in vivo activation of thymic NKT17 cells and provided costimulatory effects upon agonistic α-GalCer stimulation. Thus, we identified a specific surface marker for thymic NKT17 cells that triggers their activation and augments their effector functions both in vivo and in vitro. These findings provide new insights for deciphering the role and function of murine NKT17 cells and for understanding the development and activation mechanisms of iNKT cells in general.

JAK inhibitors: Ten years after.

The European Journal of Immunology was launched 50 years ago, coinciding with the discovery of many cytokines and growth factors and the emergence of an entirely new field of research. Ultimately, our knowledge about the biological activity of these factors allowed us to better understand how the immune system functions in the context of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases leading to the development of targeted biologic therapies. The study of cytokine signal transduction led to the discovery of Janus kinases (JAK), and the consideration of therapeutically targeting JAKs to treat immune and inflammatory diseases. This year also marks the tenth anniversary of the approval of the first JAK inhibitor (jakinib) and now there are a total of nine approved jakinibs for treatment of rheumatologic, dermatologic, gastrointestinal, and neoplastic indications and most recently COVID-19. Here, we summarized the discoveries that led to development of first-generation jakinibs, discussed some of the newer, possibly more selective jakinibs, as well as jakinibs that also target other kinases. We also illustrated the rationale behind the application of these drugs in the treatment of COVID-19 cytokine storm. In this review, we will discuss the clinical success of jakinibs, the gaps in our understanding of their biological activities as well as challenges in regard to their clinical application.

JAK-STAT signaling in human disease: From genetic syndromes to clinical inhibition.

Since its discovery, the Janus kinase-signal transduction and activation of transcription (JAK-STAT) pathway has become recognized as a central mediator of widespread and varied human physiological processes. The field of JAK-STAT biology, particularly its clinical relevance, continues to be shaped by 2 important advances. First, the increased use of genomic sequencing has led to the discovery of novel clinical syndromes caused by mutations in JAK and STAT genes. This has provided insights regarding the consequences of aberrant JAK-STAT signaling for immunity, lymphoproliferation, and malignancy. In addition, since the approval of ruxolitinib and tofacitinib, the therapeutic use of JAK inhibitors (jakinibs) has expanded to include a large spectrum of diseases. Efficacy and safety data from over a decade of clinical studies have provided additional mechanistic insights while improving the care of patients with inflammatory and neoplastic conditions. This review discusses major advances in the field, focusing on updates in genetic diseases and in studies of clinical jakinibs in human disease.

Reduced monocyte and macrophage TNFSF15/TL1A expression is associated with susceptibility to inflammatory bowel disease.

Chronic inflammation in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) results from a breakdown of intestinal immune homeostasis and compromise of the intestinal barrier. Genome-wide association studies have identified over 200 genetic loci associated with risk for IBD, but the functional mechanisms of most of these genetic variants remain unknown. Polymorphisms at the TNFSF15 locus, which encodes the TNF superfamily cytokine commonly known as TL1A, are associated with susceptibility to IBD in multiple ethnic groups. In a wide variety of murine models of inflammation including models of IBD, TNFSF15 promotes immunopathology by signaling through its receptor DR3. Such evidence has led to the hypothesis that expression of this lymphocyte costimulatory cytokine increases risk for IBD. In contrast, here we show that the IBD-risk haplotype at TNFSF15 is associated with decreased expression of the gene by peripheral blood monocytes in both healthy volunteers and IBD patients. This association persists under various stimulation conditions at both the RNA and protein levels and is maintained after macrophage differentiation. Utilizing a "recall-by-genotype" bioresource for allele-specific expression measurements in a functional fine-mapping assay, we localize the polymorphism controlling TNFSF15 expression to the regulatory region upstream of the gene. Through a T cell costimulation assay, we demonstrate that genetically regulated TNFSF15 has functional relevance. These findings indicate that genetically enhanced expression of TNFSF15 in specific cell types may confer protection against the development of IBD.

Cleavage of TL1A Differentially Regulates Its Effects on Innate and Adaptive Immune Cells.

TNF superfamily cytokines play major roles in the regulation of adaptive and innate immunity. The TNF superfamily cytokine TL1A (TNFSF15), through its cognate receptor DR3 (TNFRSF25), promotes T cell immunity to pathogens and directly costimulates group 2 and 3 innate lymphoid cells. Polymorphisms in the TNFSF15 gene are associated with the risk for various human diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease. Like other cytokines in the TNF superfamily, TL1A is synthesized as a type II transmembrane protein and cleaved from the plasma membrane by metalloproteinases. Membrane cleavage has been shown to alter or abrogate certain activities of other TNF family cytokines; however, the functional capabilities of membrane-bound and soluble forms TL1A are not known. Constitutive expression of TL1A in transgenic mice results in expansion of activated T cells and promotes intestinal hyperplasia and inflammation through stimulation of group 2 innate lymphoid cells. Through the generation of membrane-restricted TL1A-transgenic mice, we demonstrate that membrane TL1A promotes expression of inflammatory cytokines in the lung, dependent upon DR3 expression on T cells. Soluble TL1A alone was unable to produce this phenotype but was still able to induce intestinal type 2 inflammation independently of T cells. These data suggest differential roles for membrane and soluble TL1A on adaptive and innate immune cells and have implications for the consequences of blocking these two forms of TL1A.

The TNF-family receptor DR3 is essential for diverse T cell-mediated inflammatory diseases.

DR3 (TRAMP, LARD, WSL-1, TNFRSF25) is a death-domain-containing tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-family receptor primarily expressed on T cells. TL1A, the TNF-family ligand for DR3, can costimulate T cells, but the physiological function of TL1A-DR3 interactions in immune responses is not known. Using DR3-deficient mice, we identified DR3 as the receptor responsible for TL1A-induced T cell costimulation and dendritic cells as the likely source for TL1A during T cell activation. Despite its role in costimulation, DR3 was not required for in vivo T cell priming, for polarization into T helper 1 (Th1), Th2, or Th17 effector cell subtypes, or for effective control of infection with Toxoplasma gondii. Instead, DR3 expression was required on T cells for immunopathology, local T cell accumulation, and cytokine production in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE) and allergic lung inflammation, disease models that depend on distinct effector T cell subsets. DR3 could be an attractive therapeutic target for T cell-mediated autoimmune and allergic diseases.

The TNF-family ligand TL1A and its receptor DR3 promote T cell-mediated allergic immunopathology by enhancing differentiation and pathogenicity of IL-9-producing T cells.

The TNF family cytokine TL1A (Tnfsf15) costimulates T cells and type 2 innate lymphocytes (ILC2) through its receptor DR3 (Tnfrsf25). DR3-deficient mice have reduced T cell accumulation at the site of inflammation and reduced ILC2-dependent immune responses in a number of models of autoimmune and allergic diseases. In allergic lung disease models, immunopathology and local Th2 and ILC2 accumulation is reduced in DR3-deficient mice despite normal systemic priming of Th2 responses and generation of T cells secreting IL-13 and IL-4, prompting the question of whether TL1A promotes the development of other T cell subsets that secrete cytokines to drive allergic disease. In this study, we find that TL1A potently promotes generation of murine T cells producing IL-9 (Th9) by signaling through DR3 in a cell-intrinsic manner. TL1A enhances Th9 differentiation through an IL-2 and STAT5-dependent mechanism, unlike the TNF-family member OX40, which promotes Th9 through IL-4 and STAT6. Th9 differentiated in the presence of TL1A are more pathogenic, and endogenous TL1A signaling through DR3 on T cells is required for maximal pathology and IL-9 production in allergic lung inflammation. Taken together, these data identify TL1A-DR3 interactions as a novel pathway that promotes Th9 differentiation and pathogenicity. TL1A may be a potential therapeutic target in diseases dependent on IL-9.

TL1A and DR3, a TNF family ligand-receptor pair that promotes lymphocyte costimulation, mucosal hyperplasia, and autoimmune inflammation.

DR3 (TNFRSF25) is a member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) superfamily expressed primarily on lymphocytes and is a receptor for the TNF family cytokine TL1A (TNFSF15). DR3 costimulates T-cell activation, but it is unique among these receptors in that it signals through an intracytoplasmic death domain and the adapter protein TRADD (TNFR-associated death domain). TL1A costimulates T cells to produce a wide variety of cytokines and can promote expansion of activated and regulatory T cells in vivo. Studies in mice deficient in DR3 or TL1A or in animals treated with antibodies that block the activity of TL1A have revealed a specific role for DR3 in enhancing effector T-cell proliferation at the site of tissue inflammation in autoimmune disease models. DR3 appears to be required in autoimmune disease models dependent on a variety of different T-cell subsets and also invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells. Chronic expression of TL1A induces a distinct interleukin-13-dependent pathology in the small intestine marked by goblet cell hyperplasia and other features associated with allergic and anti-parasitic responses. These studies suggest that TL1A may be a viable target for therapies designed to inhibit the T-cell-dependent component of diverse autoimmune diseases.

Analyzing the Role of Gut Microbiota on the Onset of Autoimmune Diseases Using TNFΔARE Murine Model.

Very little is known about disease transmission via the gut microbiome. We hypothesized that certain inflammatory features could be transmitted via the gut microbiome and tested this hypothesis using an animal model of inflammatory diseases. Twelve-week-old healthy C57 Bl/6 and Germ-Free (GF) female and male mice were fecal matter transplanted (FMT) under anaerobic conditions with TNFΔARE-/+ donors exhibiting spontaneous Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) and Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) or with conventional healthy mice control donors. The gut microbiome analysis was performed using 16S rRNA sequencing amplification and bioinformatics analysis with the HIVE bioinformatics platform. Histology, immunohistochemistry, ELISA Multiplex analysis, and flow cytometry were conducted to confirm the inflammatory transmission status. We observed RA and IBD features transmitted in the GF mice cohort, with gut tissue disruption, cartilage alteration, elevated inflammatory mediators in the tissues, activation of CD4/CD8+ T cells, and colonization and transmission of the gut microbiome similar to the donors' profile. We did not observe a change or transmission when conventional healthy mice were FMT with TNFΔARE-/+ donors, suggesting that a healthy microbiome might withstand an unhealthy transplant. These findings show the potential involvement of the gut microbiome in inflammatory diseases. We identified a cluster of bacteria playing a role in this mechanism.

Induction of TRAIL- and TNF-alpha-dependent apoptosis in human monocyte-derived dendritic cells by microfilariae of Brugia malayi.

Dysregulation of professional APC has been postulated as a major mechanism underlying Ag-specific T cell hyporesponsiveness in patients with patent filarial infection. To address the nature of this dysregulation, dendritic cells (DC) and macrophages generated from elutriated monocytes were exposed to live microfilariae (mf), the parasite stage that circulates in blood and is responsible for most immune dysregulation in filarial infections. DC exposed to mf for 24-96 h showed a marked increase in cell death and caspase-positive cells compared with unexposed DC, whereas mf exposure did not induce apoptosis in macrophages. Interestingly, 48-h exposure of DC to mf induced mRNA expression of the proapoptotic gene TRAIL and both mRNA and protein expression of TNF-alpha. mAb to TRAIL-R2, TNF-R1, or TNF-alpha partially reversed mf-induced cell death in DC, as did knocking down the receptor for TRAIL-R2 using small interfering RNA. The mf also induced gene expression of BH3-interacting domain death agonist and protein expression of cytochrome c in DC; mf-induced cleavage of BH3-interacting domain death agonist could be shown to induce release of cytochrome c, leading to activation of caspase 9. Our data suggest that mf induce DC apoptosis in a TRAIL- and TNF-alpha-dependent fashion.

[Psychological debriefing and post-immediate psychotherapeutic intervention]. / Débriefing psychologique et intervention psychothérapique post-immédiate.

Psychological debriefing is a controversial treatment technique. In principle, many such treatments exist based on apparently indisputable conclusions which only assess the personal traumatic effect and neglect the collective impact, which is the original reason for the creation of this technique. Therefore, it is essential to take a look at the way in which debriefings are conducted, its indications, its limits and the psychodynamic processes at play.

Circulating TNF-like protein 1A (TL1A) is elevated early in rheumatoid arthritis and depends on TNF.

BACKGROUND: The tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily cytokine TNF-like protein 1A (TL1A) and its receptor DR3 are essential for diverse animal models of autoimmune disease and may be pathogenic in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However, the relationship of TL1A to disease duration, activity, and response to anti-TNF and other therapies in RA is not clear. METHODS: We measured soluble TL1A in synovial fluid (SF), serum, or plasma from RA first-degree relatives (FDRs) and in early RA and established disease. We measured the effects of anti-TNF and methotrexate (MTX) therapy on circulating TL1A from multiple independent RA treatment trials. We also determined the ability of a blocking anti-TL1A antibody to inhibit clinical disease and articular bone destruction in the murine collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) model of human RA. RESULTS: Soluble TL1A was specifically elevated in the blood and SF of patients with RA compared to patients with other diseases and was elevated early in disease and in at-risk anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide (CCP) (+) first-degree relatives (FDRs). Therapeutic TNF inhibition reduced serum TL1A in both responders and non-responders, whereas TL1A declined following MTX treatment only in responders. In murine CIA, TL1A blockade was clinically efficacious and reduced bone erosions. CONCLUSIONS: TL1A is specifically elevated in RA from early in the disease course and in at-risk FDRs. The decline in TL1A after TNF blockade suggests that TL1A levels may be a useful biomarker for TNF activity in RA. These results support the further investigation of the relationship between TL1A and TNF and TL1A blockade as a potential therapeutic strategy in RA.

RORα-expressing T regulatory cells restrain allergic skin inflammation.

Atopic dermatitis is an allergic inflammatory skin disease characterized by the production of the type 2 cytokines in the skin by type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) and T helper 2 (TH2) cells, and tissue eosinophilia. Using two distinct mouse models of atopic dermatitis, we show that expression of retinoid-related orphan receptor α (RORα) in skin-resident T regulatory cells (Tregs) is important for restraining allergic skin inflammation. In both models, targeted deletion of RORα in mouse Tregs led to exaggerated eosinophilia driven by interleukin-5 (IL-5) production by ILC2s and TH2 cells. Expression of RORα in skin-resident Tregs suppressed IL-4 expression and enhanced expression of death receptor 3 (DR3), which is the receptor for tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family cytokine, TNF ligand-related molecule 1 (TL1A), which promotes Treg functions. DR3 is expressed on both ILC2s and skin-resident Tregs Upon deletion of RORα in skin-resident Tregs, we found that Tregs were no longer able to sequester TL1A, resulting in enhanced ILC2 activation. We also documented higher expression of RORα in skin-resident Tregs than in peripheral blood circulating Tregs in humans, suggesting that RORα and the TL1A-DR3 circuit could be therapeutically targeted in atopic dermatitis.