ABSTRACT
Gram-negative bacterial infections, unlike viral infections, do not typically protect against subsequent viral infections. This is puzzling given that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and double-stranded (ds) RNA both activate the TIR domain-containing adaptor-inducing interferon beta (TRIF) pathway and, thus, are both capable of eliciting an antiviral response by stimulating type I interferon (IFN) production. We demonstrate herein that SH2-containing inositol-5'-phosphatase (SHIP) protein levels are dramatically increased in murine macrophages via the MyD88-dependent pathway, by up-regulating autocrine-acting transforming growth factor-beta (TGFbeta). The increased SHIP then mediates, via inhibition of the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) pathway, cytosine-phosphate-guanosine (CPG)- and LPS-induced tolerance and cross-tolerance and restrains IFN-beta production induced by a subsequent exposure to LPS or dsRNA. Intriguingly, we found, using isoform-specific PI3K inhibitors, that LPS- or cytosine-phosphate-guanosine-induced interleukin-6 (IL-6) is positively regulated by p110alpha, -gamma, and -delta but negatively regulated by p110beta. This may explain some of the controversy concerning the role of PI3K in Toll-like receptor-induced cytokine production. Consistent with our in vitro findings, SHIP(-/-) mice overproduce IFN-beta in response to LPS, and this leads to antiviral hypothermia. Thus, up-regulation of SHIP in response to Gram-negative bacterial infections probably explains the inability of such infections to protect against subsequent viral infections.
Subject(s)
Immunity, Innate/drug effects , Immunity, Innate/genetics , Lipopolysaccharides/pharmacology , Phosphoric Monoester Hydrolases/genetics , Viruses/immunology , Animals , Cells, Cultured , CpG Islands/immunology , CpG Islands/physiology , Gene Expression Regulation/drug effects , Gene Expression Regulation/immunology , Hypothermia/genetics , Hypothermia/immunology , Immune Tolerance/drug effects , Immune Tolerance/genetics , Inositol Polyphosphate 5-Phosphatases , Interferon-beta/metabolism , Macrophages/drug effects , Macrophages/immunology , Macrophages/metabolism , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Mice, Knockout , Myeloid Differentiation Factor 88/genetics , Myeloid Differentiation Factor 88/physiology , Phosphoric Monoester Hydrolases/metabolism , RNA, Double-Stranded/immunology , RNA, Double-Stranded/pharmacology , Transforming Growth Factor beta/metabolism , Transforming Growth Factor beta/pharmacologyABSTRACT
RasGRP1 is a Ras-activating exchange factor that is positively regulated by translocation to membranes. RasGRP1 contains a diacylglycerol-binding C1 domain, and it has been assumed that this domain is entirely responsible for RasGRP1 translocation. We found that the C1 domain can contribute to plasma membrane-targeted translocation of RasGRP1 induced by ligation of the B cell antigen receptor (BCR). However, this reflects cooperativity of the C1 domain with the previously unrecognized Plasma membrane Targeter (PT) domain, which is sufficient and essential for plasma membrane targeting of RasGRP1. The adjacent suppressor of PT (SuPT) domain attenuates the plasma membrane-targeting activity of the PT domain, thus preventing constitutive plasma membrane localization of RasGRP1. By binding to diacylglycerol generated by BCR-coupled phospholipase Cgamma2, the C1 domain counteracts the SuPT domain and enables efficient RasGRP1 translocation to the plasma membrane. In fibroblasts, the PT domain is inactive as a plasma membrane targeter, and the C1 domain specifies constitutive targeting of RasGRP1 to internal membranes where it can be activated and trigger oncogenic transformation. Selective use of the C1, PT, and SuPT domains may contribute to the differential targeting of RasGRP1 to the plasma membrane versus internal membranes, which has been observed in lymphocytes and other cell types.