Amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in Cusuco National Park, Honduras.

Amphibian population declines in Honduras have long been attributed to habitat degradation and pollution, but an increasing number of declines are now being observed from within the boundaries of national parks in pristine montane environments. The amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis has been implicated in these declines and was recently documented in Honduras from samples collected in Pico Bonito National Park in 2003. This report now confirms Cusuco National Park, a protected cloud forest reserve with reported amphibian declines, to be the second known site of infection for Honduras. B. dendrobatidis infection was detected in 5 amphibian species: Craugastor rostralis, Duellmanohyla soralia, Lithobates maculata, Plectrohyla dasypus, and Ptychohyla hypomykter. D. soralia, P. dasypus, and P. hypomykter are listed as critically endangered in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and have severely fragmented or restricted distributions. Further investigations are necessary to determine whether observed infection levels indicate an active B. dendrobatidis epizootic with the potential to cause further population declines and extinction.

Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a novel pathogen approaching endemism in central California.

The recent emergence of amphibian chytridiomycosis has precipitated competing hypotheses regarding the endemic versus novel nature of the causative agent, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). We conducted a retrospective survey of the California Academy of Sciences' (San Francisco, California, USA) amphibian collection, testing for presence of Bd in 4 amphibian species collected from central California between 1897 and 2005. The earliest detection of Bd was found in 2 Rana catesbeiana in 1961, and the data support the hypothesis that Bd was a novel pathogen introduced into central California prior to 1961 that spread out geographically and taxonomically from at least one central location and is now endemic throughout most of central California. The taxonomic pattern of infection prevalence and the ecological constraints of the 4 species we tested suggest that, although Bd was initially detected in R. catesbeiana, the more efficient and most likely local vector for Bd in central California is actually Pseudacris regilla.

Evaluation of tadpole mouthpart depigmentation as a diagnostic test for infection by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis for four California anurans.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the utility of gross morphologic examination of larval mouthpart defects as a diagnostic screening test to detect Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection in four California, USA, anuran species. We examined mouthparts of 2,034 tadpoles of Bufo boreas, Pseudacris regilla, and Rana catesbeiana collected in 2003 and 2004 and Bufo canorus collected in 2004. Data were recorded for three morphologic features: upper toothrows, lower toothrows, and combined jaw sheaths. Mouthpart defects were observed in all four species (n=757), but only two species were infected with B. dendrobatidis (n=84). Sensitivity and specificity of the mouthparts test were 76% and 58%, respectively. Forty-two percent of B. dendrobatidis-negative animals would have been designated positive based on mouthpart defects. Observed prevalence was 43%, and true prevalence was 3.0%. Tests of the null hypothesis using logistic regression analysis showed that anuran larval mouthpart defects were not associated with B. dendrobatidis infection whether mouthparts scores were tested by individual morphologic feature or in combination (P=0.37). We conclude that B. dendrobatidis infection and anuran larval mouthpart defects are two separate processes that may occur concurrently and that evaluation of tadpole oral morphology is neither an accurate nor a reliable diagnostic test for B. dendrobatidis infection for the four species tested.

Re-isolating Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis from an amphibian host increases pathogenicity in a subsequent exposure.

Controlled exposure experiments can be very informative, however, they are based on the assumption that pathogens maintained on artificial media under long-term storage retain the infective and pathogenic properties of the reproducing pathogen as it occurs in a host. We observed that JEL284, an in vitro cultured and maintained isolate of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), was becoming less infectious with successive uses. We hypothesized that passing an isolate propagated on artificial media through an amphibian host would make the isolate more infectious and pathogenic in subsequent exposures. To test our hypothesis, we used two discreet steps, a reisolation step (step 1) and a comparative exposure step (step 2). In step 1, we exposed eastern spadefoot toads, Scaphiopus holbrooki, to JEL284 and JEL197, another isolate that had been maintained in vitro for over six years. We then re-isolated JEL284 only from a successful infection and named this new isolate JEL284(FMBa). JEL197 did not infect any amphibians and, thus, did not proceed to step 2. In step 2, we compared infectivity and pathogenicity (mortality and survival time) of JEL284 and JEL284(FMBa) by exposing 54 naïve S. holbrooki to three treatments (JEL284, JEL284(FMBa), and negative control) with 18 individuals per group. We found that JEL284(FMBa) caused higher mortality and decreased survival time in infected individuals when compared to JEL284 and negative controls. Thus, our data show that pathogenicity of Bd can decrease when cultured successively in media only and can be partially restored by passage through an amphibian host. Therefore, we have demonstrated that pathogenicity shifts can occur rapidly in this pathogen. Given the potential for shifts in pathogenicity demonstrated here, we suspect Bd to have similar potential in natural populations. We suggest that, when possible, the use of freshly isolated or cryopreserved Bd would improve the quality of controlled exposure experiments using this pathogen.