COVID-19 and Inequity: a Comparative Spatial Analysis of New York City and Chicago Hot Spots.

There have been numerous reports that the impact of the ongoing COVID-19 epidemic has disproportionately impacted traditionally vulnerable communities associated with neighborhood attributes, such as the proportion of racial and ethnic minorities, migrants, and the lower income households. The goal of this ecological cross-sectional study is to examine the demographic and economic nature of spatial hot and cold spots of SARS-CoV-2 rates in New York City and Chicago as of April 13, 2020 using data from the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Illinois Department of Public Health, and the American Community Survey. In both cities, cold spots (clusters of low SARS-CoV-2 rate ZIP code tabulation areas as identified by the Getis-Ord (GI*) statistic) demonstrated social determinants of health characteristics typically associated with better health outcomes and the ability to maintain physical distance ("social distancing"). These neighborhoods tended to be wealthier, have higher educational attainment, higher proportions of non-Hispanic white residents, and more workers in managerial occupations (all p values < 0.01 using Wilcoxon two-sample test). Hot spots (clusters of high SARS-CoV-2 rate ZIP code tabulation areas) had similarities as well, such as lower rates of college graduates and higher proportions of people of color. It also appears that household size (more people per household), rather than overall population density (people per square mile), is more strongly associated with hot spots. New York City had an average of 3.0 people per household in hot spots and 2.1 in cold spots (p < 0.01), and Chicago had 2.8 people per household in hot spots and 2.0 in cold spots (p = 0.03). However, hotspots were located in neighborhoods that were significantly less dense (New York City: 22,900 people per square mile in hot spots and 68,900 in cold spots (p < 0.01); Chicago: 10,000 people per square mile in hot spots and 23,400 in cold spots (p = 0.03)). Findings suggest important differences between the cities' hot spots as well. NYC hot spots can be described as working-class and middle-income communities, perhaps indicative of greater concentrations of service workers and other occupations (including those classified as "essential services" during the pandemic) that may not require a college degree but pay wages above poverty levels. Chicago's hot spot neighborhoods, on the other hand, are among the city's most vulnerable, low-income neighborhoods with extremely high rates of poverty, unemployment, and non-Hispanic Black residents.

Occupational Groups and Environmental Justice: A Case Study in the Bronx, New York.

We used spatial analyses to examine exposure of people in vulnerable occupational groups to neighborhood-level environmental pollutants in the Bronx borough of New York City. Five-year estimates of environmental ambient exposures (derived from land use regression models for PM2.5 [particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter ≤2.5 µm] and black carbon) and demographic and occupational variables were harmonized at the census tract level. Correlations revealed that areas with high environmental exposures also had high proportions of people in service industries and manufacturing and high proportions of socioeconomically vulnerable populations. This combination of vulnerabilities may be cumulative, suggesting residents could have high occupational and residential exposures in addition to sociodemographic-related inequity.

Respirable dust and silica exposure among World Trade Center cleanup workers.

The cleanup effort following the destruction of the World Trade Center (WTC) was unprecedented and involved removal of 1.8 million tons of rubble over a nine-month period. Work at the site occurred 24 hr a day, 7 days a week and involved thousands of workers during the process. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) conducted personal and area exposure sampling during the cleanup of the site. Secondary data analysis was performed on OSHA air sampling data for respirable dust and silica from September 2001 to June 2002 at the WTC recovery site to characterize workers' exposure. Results for silica and respirable particulate were stratified by area and personal samples as well as job task for analysis. Of 1108 samples included in the analysis, 693 were personal and 415 were area. The mean result for personal silica samples was 42 µg/m3 (Range: 4.2-1800 µg/m3). Workers identified as drillers had the highest mean silica exposure (72 µg/m3; range: 5.8-800 µg/m3) followed by workers identified as dock builders (67 µg/m3; range: 5.8-670 µg/m3). The mean result for personal samples for respirable particulate was 0.44 mg/m3 (range: 0.00010-13 mg/m3). There were no discernable trends in personal respirable dust and silica concentrations with date.

Bioaccessibility and Risk of Exposure to Metals and SVOCs in Artificial Turf Field Fill Materials and Fibers.

To reduce maintenance costs, municipalities and schools are starting to replace natural grass fields with a new generation synthetic turf. Unlike Astro-Turf, which was first introduced in the 1960s, synthetic field turf provides more cushioning to athletes. Part of this cushioning comes from materials like crumb rubber infill, which is manufactured from recycled tires and may contain a variety of chemicals. The goal of this study was to evaluate potential exposures from playing on artificial turf fields and associated risks to trace metals, semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) by examining typical artificial turf fibers (n = 8), different types of infill (n = 8), and samples from actual fields (n = 7). Three artificial biofluids were prepared, which included: lung, sweat, and digestive fluids. Artificial biofluids were hypothesized to yield a more representative estimation of dose than the levels obtained from total extraction methods. PAHs were routinely below the limit of detection across all three biofluids, precluding completion of a meaningful risk assessment. No SVOCs were identified at quantifiable levels in any extracts based on a match of their mass spectrum to compounds that are regulated in soil. The metals were measurable but at concentrations for which human health risk was estimated to be low. The study demonstrated that for the products and fields we tested, exposure to infill and artificial turf was generally considered de minimus, with the possible exception of lead for some fields and materials.

Relative exposure to swine animal feeding operations and childhood asthma prevalence in an agricultural cohort.

Large swine animal feeding operations (AFOs) have become the model of livestock production throughout the United States. Epidemiological studies have consistently shown an increase in adverse respiratory symptoms among workers at AFOs. However, the impact on communities surrounding these facilities is still being investigated. We evaluated the association between relative environmental exposure to AFOs and the prevalence of prescribed medication for wheeze and/or childhood asthma in rural Iowa. Demographic and health information on 565 children aged 0-17 was obtained from a previous population-based cohort study while data on the AFOs were collected from publically available tax records. We created a metric of each child's relative environmental exposure to swine CAFOs which incorporated the size of the AFO as well as distance and wind direction. We determined the association between self-reported prescription medication for wheeze and/or self-reported physician diagnosed asthma and relative exposure while controlling for recognized risk factors using correlated logistic regression. The prevalence of childhood asthma in the cohort was 11.0% while 22.7% of children had been previously prescribed medication for wheeze or had a lifetime asthma diagnosis. Children with a larger relative environmental exposure to AFOs had a significantly increased odds of both outcomes (OR=1.51, p=0.014 asthma; OR=1.38, p=0.023 asthma or medication for wheeze). When stratified into exposure quartiles a linear trend was observed with asthma or medication for wheeze as the dependent variable but not with asthma alone. This study is the first to investigate children's cumulative relative exposure to smaller AFOs and adds to the growing volume of literature supporting a link between proximity to swine AFOs and adverse respiratory health.

Effects of copper and zinc on ischemic heart disease and myocardial infarction: a Mendelian randomization study.

Background: Despite great progress in prevention and control, ischemic heart disease (IHD) remains a leading cause of global morbidity and mortality. Diet plays a key role in IHD, but a comprehensive delineation of the role of dietary factors in IHD is not yet quite complete. Objective: The aim of this study was to test the long-standing hypothesis that copper is protective and zinc harmful in IHD. Design: We used separate-sample instrumental variable analysis with genetic instruments (Mendelian randomization). We obtained single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from a genome wide association study, strongly (P value < 5 × 10-8) and independently associated with erythrocyte copper and zinc. We applied these genetic predictors of copper and zinc to the largest, most extensively genotyped IHD case (n ≤ 76014)-control (n ≤ 264785) study, based largely on CARDIoGRAMplusC4D 1000 Genomes and the UK Biobank SOFT CAD, to obtain SNP-specific Wald estimates for the effects of copper and zinc on IHD, which were combined through the use of inverse variance weighting. Sensitivity analysis included use of the MR-Egger method, and reanalysis including SNPs independently associated with erythrocyte copper and zinc at P value < 5 × 10-6. Results: Genetically instrumented copper was negatively associated with IHD (OR: 0.94; 95% CI: 0.90, 0.98). Genetically instrumented zinc was positively associated with IHD (OR: 1.06; 95% CI: 1.02, 1.11). Sensitivity analysis via MR-Egger gave no indication of unknown pleiotropy; less strongly associated SNPs gave similar results for copper. Conclusion: Genetic validation of a long-standing hypothesis suggests that further investigation of the effects, particularly of copper, on IHD may provide a practical means of reducing the leading cause of mortality and morbidity.

Manganese concentrations in soil and settled dust in an area with historic ferroalloy production.

Ferroalloy production can release a number of metals into the environment, of which manganese (Mn) is of major concern. Other elements include lead, iron, zinc, copper, chromium, and cadmium. Mn exposure derived from settled dust and suspended aerosols can cause a variety of adverse neurological effects to chronically exposed individuals. To better estimate the current levels of exposure, this study quantified the metal levels in dust collected inside homes (n=85), outside homes (n=81), in attics (n=6), and in surface soil (n=252) in an area with historic ferroalloy production. Metals contained in indoor and outdoor dust samples were quantified using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, whereas attic and soil measurements were made with a X-ray fluorescence instrument. Mean Mn concentrations in soil (4600 µg/g) and indoor dust (870 µg/g) collected within 0.5 km of a plant exceeded levels previously found in suburban and urban areas, but did decrease outside 1.0 km to the upper end of background concentrations. Mn concentrations in attic dust were ~120 times larger than other indoor dust levels, consistent with historical emissions that yielded high airborne concentrations in the region. Considering the potential health effects that are associated with chronic Mn inhalation and ingestion exposure, remediation of soil near the plants and frequent, on-going hygiene indoors may decrease residential exposure and the likelihood of adverse health effects.

Passive monitors to measure hydrogen sulfide near concentrated animal feeding operations.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is one of many airborne pollutants emitted by concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs). However, few studies have characterized ambient H2S levels near these facilities, largely due to the lack of low-cost, reliable, and easily transportable instrumentation available to researchers. We determined intermediate environmental H2S exposure near CAFOs using Radiello passive monitors. First, a laboratory study was performed to determine the accuracy of the device. Next, a total of eight passive H2S monitors were deployed bi-weekly in close proximity (<40 m) to a medium-sized swine confinement for seven months in order to determine the temporal and spatial variability of H2S. Finally, we measured H2S concentrations across two rural Iowa counties to characterize ambient exposure near thirteen CAFOs and two schools. The value of the temperature-adjusted H2S passive diffusion rate provided by the supplier was 29% larger than the 24 h rate determined experimentally. Concentrations of H2S measured near the medium-sized confinement were varied and ranged from 0.2 to 48.6 ppb depending on the sampling period and proximity to a lagoon on the property. Two-week concentrations near the schools were low (<1 ppb), while concentrations near the thirteen CAFOs ranged from 0.1 to 42.9 ppb. The passive monitors were effective in measuring H2S concentrations near a swine CAFO as long as they were exposed for a sufficient period of time (two weeks). Radiello passive monitors are a promising new device in measuring intermediate H2S exposure in rural populations. Measured values in excess of an Iowa state limit of 30 ppb (24 h average) suggest that enforcement actions are needed to mitigate H2S migration from swine CAFOs.

Indoor and outdoor particulate matter and endotoxin concentrations in an intensely agricultural county.

The objectives of this study were to characterize rural populations' indoor and outdoor exposure to particulate matter (PM)(10), PM(2.5), and endotoxin and identify factors that influence these concentrations. Samples were collected at 197 rural households over five continuous days between 2007 and 2011. Geometric mean (GM) indoor PM(10) (21.2 µg/m(3)) and PM(2.5) (12.2 µg/m(3)) concentrations tended to be larger than outdoor PM(10) (19.6 µg/m(3)) and PM(2.5) (8.2 µg/m(3)) concentrations (PM(10) P=0.086; PM(2.5) P<0.001). Conversely, GM outdoor endotoxin concentrations (1.93 EU/m(-3)) were significantly larger than indoor (0.32 EU/m(3); P<0.001). Compared with measurements from previous urban studies, indoor and outdoor concentrations of PM(10) and PM(2.5) in the study area tended to be smaller, whereas ambient endotoxin concentrations measured outside rural households were 3-10 times larger. Contrary to our initial hypothesis, seasonality did not have a significant effect on mean ambient PM(10) concentrations; however, endotoxin concentrations in the autumn were almost seven times larger than winter. Excluding home cleanliness, the majority of agricultural and housing characteristics evaluated were found to be poorly associated with indoor and outdoor particulate and endotoxin concentrations.