Experimental study of the fluctuation theorem in a nonequilibrium steady state.

The fluctuation theorem (FT) quantifies the probability of second law violations in small systems over short time scales. While this theorem has been experimentally demonstrated for systems that are perturbed from an initial equilibrium state, there are a number of studies suggesting that the theorem applies asymptotically in the long time limit to systems in a nonequilibrium steady state. The asymptotic application of the FT to such nonequilibrium steady states has been referred to in the literature as the steady-state fluctuation theorem (or SSFT). In this paper, we demonstrate experimentally the application of the FT to nonequilibrium steady states, using a colloidal particle localized in a translating optical trap. Furthermore, we show, for this colloidal system, that the FT holds under nonequilibrium steady states for all time, and not just in the long time limit, as in the SSFT.

Developmental perspectives in child and adolescent depressive symptoms in a community sample.

This developmental study provides some normative data on the distribution of depressive symptoms in 210 children and adolescents in three different age groups (8, 12, and 17 years) from a nonclinically referred sample. The Child Assessment Schedule and other instruments were used. Studying depression from a dimensional point of view, the authors found withdrawal, pessimism, horrible dreams, and suicidal ideation and tendency in the different age groups to be closely related to depressive symptoms.

Risk factors and correlates of severe psychiatric disorders in a sample of inpatient children.

This study used three informants to assess pervasiveness of psychopathology in a sample of 100 psychiatrically hospitalized children. Analyses of risk factors for severely disturbed and less disturbed children revealed that hopelessness, anxiety, low self-esteem, undisciplined personality profile, and negative life events differentiated the severely disturbed group from the less disturbed group. Implications of these findings are discussed, with an emphasis on the importance of focusing on degree of psychopathology with regard to risk factors.

Stress reactions of children and adolescents in war and siege conditions.

OBJECTIVE: This was a study of posttraumatic stress symptoms in children and adolescents during siege conditions in Sarajevo. METHOD: Seven hundred ninety-one students aged 7-15 years were surveyed to assess symptoms of posttraumatic stress and level of deprivation. RESULTS: Girls reported more stress than boys. Loss of family members and deprivation of basic needs were associated with more symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Personal experiences of siege are related to increased stress.

Comorbidity of conduct disorder and personality disorders in an incarcerated juvenile population.

OBJECTIVE: Youths with conduct disorder extract an inordinate amount of time and money from the U.S. judicial system and taxpayers, yet studies pertaining to this population have been few. This study was undertaken to examine the co-occurrence of personality disorders and conduct disorder in a group of incarcerated children and adolescents and to raise the issue of the possibility of antisocial personality disorder in persons under the age of 18 years. METHOD: One hundred incarcerated juvenile offenders aged 11-17 years were randomly selected and then interviewed with the Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents--Revised and the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R Personality Disorders to establish their psychiatric diagnoses. RESULTS: Eighty-seven percent of the group met the criteria for conduct disorder. Among those diagnosed as having conduct disorder, the only comorbid personality disorder that was present with significant frequency was antisocial personality disorder. The other comorbid personality disorder diagnoses that appeared most frequently were the borderline, narcissistic, paranoid, passive-aggressive, and dependent types. Borderline personality disorder was observed more frequently in the females than in the males with conduct disorder. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that by using DSM-III-R criteria for adult personality disorders, one finds a considerable number of personality disorders in a young population with conduct disorder. The findings also show that youths manifest signs of antisocial personality disorder before they are 18 years of age, raising the question of how age should be incorporated into the diagnosis of personality disorder as DSM-IV is being prepared.

Psychiatric disorders in a community sample of adolescents.

The prevalence of psychiatric disorders diagnosed according to DSM-III in adolescents in the general population is not known. The authors address this issue in a community sample of 150 adolescents 14-16 years of age. Structured interviews as well as other instruments were used to collect data. Twenty-eight (18.7%) of the 150 adolescents were identified as having a psychiatric disorder. These 28 adolescents viewed their parents as less caring, had lower self-esteem, and resolved their conflicts through verbal aggression and physical violence more often than did the adolescents who did not have a psychiatric disorder. The authors make recommendations regarding the use of structured interviews in future research.

Correlates of anxiety in psychiatrically hospitalized children and their parents.

The authors separated 100 children hospitalized in a child psychiatry service into three groups according to their level of anxiety on the basis of the responses of the children and their parents to diagnostic interviews. Differentiation of the groups of children was validated by independent test instruments. Results of tests administered to the children and their parents revealed significant relationships between anxiety in the adults and in the children. In addition, parents of anxious children reported more SCL-90-R symptoms as well as more negative family relations than parents of nonanxious children and the more severely anxious children had higher rates of dysthymia and negative life events.

Depression, depressive symptoms, and depressed mood among a community sample of adolescents.

Using a structured interview, the authors found that the prevalence of major depression and dysthymic disorder was 4.7% and 3.3%, respectively, in a community sample of 150 adolescents. All of the adolescents who met the criteria for major depression and dysthymic disorder had other psychiatric disorders as well; anxiety was the most frequent accompanying DSM-III diagnosis.

Depression among amputees.

A 35% prevalence of major depressive disorder was found in a prospective study of 65 amputees evaluated in a Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Department. The findings indicate significantly more alcohol abuse among the depressed group. Higher percentages of female than male amputees were found to be depressed and unmarried. The prevalence of smoking was significantly higher among those whose amputations were due to vascular disease rather than other causes (e.g., trauma). In addition to the physical care of amputees, their emotional needs and well-being merit serious consideration.

Purification of astroglial-cell cultures from rat spinal cord: the use of d-valine to inhibit fibroblast growth.

Primary astrocyte cultures from spinal cord were purified from contaminating fibroblasts by growth in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) in which l-valine was substituted by d-valine. This medium was not supportive for growth of fibroblasts and inhibited their proliferation. The culture purity was assessed using immunofluorescence labelling with specific antibodies to various cell markers. Cultures contained predominantly astrocytes with greater than 92% of this cell type in d-valine medium as opposed to approx. 70% in d,l-valine DMEM medium. This procedure enables primary cultures to be obtained with a larger percentage of astrocytes by a simple modification to the growth medium.

Aggression and anxiety: a new look at an old notion.

The present study examined the relationship between anxiety and aggression. A total of 210 subjects, 8, 12, and 17 years of age, were studied. The Conflict Tactics Scale was used to measure the subjects' verbal and physical aggression. The Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale was used to measure anxiety; the Child Assessment Schedule and its parental version were used to identify the DSM-III diagnoses. Results indicated significantly more anxiety in both the high-verbal and high-physical aggression subjects. Findings are discussed, and clinical implications of the study are considered.

Correlates of suicidal ideation in a community sample of children and adolescents.

The correlates of suicidal ideation were studied in a community sample of 210 children and adolescents. Psychopathology of the child by the child's report and by the parent's report was analyzed, as well as analysis of the psychopathology of the parent. Fourteen children [corrected] in this sample reported suicidal ideation. Parents were generally not aware of their children's suicidal ideations. Children who reported suicidal ideation showed significantly more psychopathology than children who did not. The parents of children with suicidal ideation reported that their children had more externalizing but fewer internalizing symptoms than reported by their children. Parents of children who reported suicidal ideations were themselves experiencing a greater intensity of psychological distress. The implications of these results are discussed.

Hopelessness in inpatient youths: a closer look at behavior, emotional expression, and social support.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the individual and family characteristics of children and adolescents with high levels of hopelessness. METHOD: One hundred inpatient youngsters participated in the study. Several measures, including the Hopelessness Scale for Children, Problem Behavior Scale of the Scales of Independent Behavior, Social Support Questionnaire-Revised, Pediatric Anger Expression Scale, and Differential Emotions Scale, were used to compare differences between youngsters who scored high or low on hopelessness. RESULTS: The results indicated that youngsters with high hopelessness scores tended to perceive their families and peers as providing little support, to express their anger overtly and aggressively, and to demonstrate more negative emotions than youngsters with low hopelessness scores. CONCLUSIONS: Hopelessness in youths appears to be associated with a specific pattern of behavioral and emotional problems. Clinical implications of the findings include integrating anger management, emotional expression interventions, and involving the family in treatment to enhance the social support network of youngsters with high levels of hopelessness.

Psychopathology in a community sample of children and adolescents: a developmental perspective.

Psychiatric disorders, symptom clusters and adjustment problems in a community based sample comprised three age cohorts: 8, 12, and 17 years. The data indicated that anxiety symptoms decreased with age. Conduct problems increased with age for males, affective problems increased with age for females, and substance use and social anxiety increased with age for both sexes. Concerns about inadequacy also increases with age, but only for females. These gender-based developmental differences in psychopathology and other findings are discussed.

Perceived family and social support: impact on children.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the relation of children's perceived family and social support to their behavior and hopelessness. METHOD: Subjects were 100 child psychiatric inpatients who completed a series of self-report measures, including the Social Support Questionnaire-Self Report, the Scales of Independent Behavior, and the Hopelessness Scale for Children. RESULTS: Children who perceived lower levels of family and social support were more withdrawn or inattentive and were more harmful to others, damaging to property, and uncooperative. In addition, children who reported fewer supportive persons in their lives had higher levels of hopelessness. CONCLUSIONS: These data emphasize the connection between social support systems, psychopathology, and hopelessness. These relationships may indicate that children need a sense that they are cared for and supported if they are to avoid serious problems and feelings of hopelessness.

Utility of the Beck Depression Inventory with clinic-referred adolescents.

This study reports on the utilization of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and the Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents (DICA) in a sample of 100 clinic referred adolescents. Results indicate that the BDI efficiently identified and differentiated depressed from nondepressed adolescents. In addition, greater levels of depressive symptomatology and depressive disorder were found in girls. Reasons for these general sex differences are discussed, and it is concluded that a psychological explanation appears more promising than existing biological explanations.

Dysthymic disorder in clinically referred preschool children.

OBJECTIVE: This clinical and descriptive study examined the existence, phenomenology, and frequency of dysthymic disorder in a sample of clinically referred preschool children. In addition, the frequency of DSM-IV symptoms and the alternative research criterion for dysthymic disorder were investigated. METHOD: Three hundred consecutive preschool admissions (aged 2 to 6 years) to a child development unit were given a comprehensive evaluation by a treatment team. Data were collected from multiple informants based on the suitability of each source. RESULTS: The findings indicated that eight children met criteria for dysthymic disorder according to the DSM-IV criteria and the alternative research criterion for dysthymic disorder. CONCLUSIONS: The results support the existence of dysthymic disorder in preschool-age children. Recommendations are made for future versions of DSM as well as the appropriateness and significance of various sources of information, such as the child, parents, teachers, and clinician observations, for the evaluation of symptoms of dysthymic disorder in preschoolers.

Relationship of personality, environmental, and DICA variables to adolescent hopelessness: a neural network sensitivity approach.

OBJECTIVE: This study identified critical factors from a set of psychiatric diagnoses, personality traits, and family and social support variables that relate to hopelessness in adolescents. METHOD: One hundred fifty adolescents were selected in a systematic sample from 1,700 high school students; they completed the Millon Adolescent Personality Inventory, the Parental Bonding Questionnaire, the Social Support Questionnaire, the Hopelessness Scale for Children and were interviewed by trained clinicians on the Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents. Selected variables were chosen for a back-propagation neural network model and for subsequent sensitivity and statistical analysis. RESULTS: Sensitive adolescents and adolescents with less impulse control scored high on hopelessness. Forceful adolescents were less hopeless. CONCLUSIONS: Using the neural network models, the authors suggest that assertive training as well as group activities that increase cooperativeness may ameliorate hopelessness.

Characteristics of anger expression in depressed children.

OBJECTIVES: To examine anger expression styles in depressed and nondepressed children and to investigate whether the relation between depression and anger expression was mediated by family variables. METHOD: From a sample of 100 psychiatric inpatient children, 11 depressed children and 11 matched nondepressed psychiatric controls were compared on two self-report measures, the Pediatric Anger Expression Style and the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales-III-K. RESULTS: Depressed children reported significantly more difficulty maintaining cognitive control of their anger than did nondepressed children who were psychiatric inpatients. Family cohesion and adaptability were not found to have an effect on this relationship. No significant differences were found with respect to the tendency to deny or suppress anger or the tendency to express anger aggressively. CONCLUSIONS: Depressed children experienced more difficulties expressing their anger using a controlled/cognitive style than nondepressed (externalizing) children. The lack of a mediating role of family variables suggests that anger expression styles may be more related to the characteristics of depression in children, a finding that has clinical implications for addressing treatment of depressed children.

Development and validation of an exercise performance support system for people with lower extremity impairment.

OBJECTIVE: To identify innovative strategies to support appropriate, self-directed exercise that increase physical activity levels of people with arthritis. This article reports on one interactive, multimedia exercise performance support system (PSS) for people with lower extremity impairments in strength or flexibility. METHODS: An interdisciplinary team developed the PSS using self-report of lower extremity musculoskeletal impairments (flexibility and strength) to produce an individualized exercise program with video and print educational materials. Initial evaluation has investigated the validity and reliability of program assessments and recommendations. RESULTS: PSS self-report and professional assessments were similar, with more impairments indicated by self-report. PSS exercise recommendations were similar to those made by 3 expert physical therapists using the same exercise data base. Results of PSS impairment assessments were stable over a 1-week period. CONCLUSION: PSS exercise recommendations appear to be reliable and a valid reflection of current exercise knowledge in rheumatology. Furthermore, users were able to complete the computer-based program with minimal assistance and reported it to be enjoyable and informative.