Fabrication of electrochemical DNA sensors on gold-modified recessed platinum nanoelectrodes.

We report the use of gold-modified recessed platinum (Pt) nanoelectrodes in the fabrication of linear and stem-loop probe-based electrochemical DNA (E-DNA) sensors. Pt nanoelectrodes with a radius less than 10 nm were reproducibly fabricated using an optimized laser pulling technique. Prior to sensor fabrication, the nanoelectrode was electrochemically etched to create a recessed nanopore, followed by electrodeposition of gold into the nanopore using either cyclic voltammetry or constant potential amperometry. Both techniques enabled controlled deposition of gold into the nanopores, resulting in a nanostructured gold electrode with a well-defined surface area. In addition, we systematically determined the optimal experimental condition for DNA probe immobilization and target interrogation. The electron transfer rate constants of methylene blue, as determined using alternating current voltammetry, were found to be much higher than those obtained from E-DNA sensors fabricated on conventional macroscale electrodes. While this unique phenomenon requires further investigation, our results clearly show that these gold-modified nanoelectrodes can be used as substrates for this class of electrochemical biosensors.

Use of combined scanning electrochemical and fluorescence microscopy for detection of reactive oxygen species in prostate cancer cells.

Release of ROS from prostate cancer (PC3) cells was studied using scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) and fluorescence microscopy. One-directional lateral scan SECM was used as a rapid and reproducible tool for simultaneous mapping of cell topography and reactive oxygen species (ROS) release. Fluorescence microscopy was used in tandem to monitor the tip position, in addition to providing information on intracellular ROS content via the use of ROS-reactive fluorescent dyes. A unique tip current (iT) vs lateral distance profile was observed when the tip potential (ET) was set at -0.65 V. This profile reflects the combined effects of topographical change and ROS release at the PC3 cell surfaces. Differentiation between topographical-related and ROS-induced current change was achieved by comparing the scans collected at -0.65 and -0.85 V. The effects of other parameters such as tip to cell distance, solvent oxygen content, and scan direction on the profile of the scan were systematically evaluated. Cells treated with tert-butyl hydroperoxide, a known ROS stimulus, were also evaluated using the lateral scanning approach. Overall, the SECM results correlate well with the fluorescence results. The extracellular ROS level detected at the SECM tip was found to be similar to the intracellular ROS level monitored using fluorescence microscopy. While the concentration of each contributing ROS species has not been determined and is thus part of the future study, here we have successfully demonstrated the use of a simple two-potential lateral scan approach for analysis of ROS released by living cells under real physiological conditions.

Application of electrochemical surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy for characterization of electrochemical DNA sensors.

We report the use of electrochemical surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy (EC-SPR) in the characterization of electrochemical DNA sensors. Three DNA probes, including a stem-loop probe and two linear probes (LP), were used in this study. Among the three sensors, the 3xLP sensor, a new sensor design with three consecutive target recognition sites, showed the largest change in SPR signal upon hybridization to T-25, a 25-base target with overhang regions that do not bind to the 3xLP probe. A detection limit of 20nM was determined for T-25 using this sensor. Overall, this work has demonstrated the main advantage of EC-SPR, which is the ability to monitor both optical and electrochemical signals simultaneously, from sensor fabrication to target interrogation and sensor regeneration. It also alludes to the potential use of this hybrid technique to differentiate between non-specific binding and non-specific adsorption of non-complement targets onto the sensor surface.

Electrochemical hydrogen peroxide sensors fabricated using cytochrome c immobilized on macroelectrodes and ultramicroelectrodes.

We report the design and fabrication of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) sensors using heme proteins immobilized on macroelectrodes and ultramicroelectrodes (UMEs). In this sensor design, the heme centers are directly "wired" to the electrode via the use of an imidazole-terminated self-assembled monolayer. We have systematically evaluated the effect of electrode type and size on sensor performance. The limit of detection for H2O2 determined using a 10-µm gold UME is significantly lower than that obtained using a stationary macroelectrode. Our results also highlight the advantages of using UMEs for enzyme kinetics analysis; the Km determined using a 10-µm UME is similar to that obtained from a rotating disk electrode.