Modeling human skeletal development using human pluripotent stem cells.

Chondrocytes and osteoblasts differentiated from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) will provide insights into skeletal development and genetic skeletal disorders and will generate cells for regenerative medicine applications. Here, we describe a method that directs iPSC-derived sclerotome to chondroprogenitors in 3D pellet culture then to articular chondrocytes or, alternatively, along the growth plate cartilage pathway to become hypertrophic chondrocytes that can transition to osteoblasts. Osteogenic organoids deposit and mineralize a collagen I extracellular matrix (ECM), mirroring in vivo endochondral bone formation. We have identified gene expression signatures at key developmental stages including chondrocyte maturation, hypertrophy, and transition to osteoblasts and show that this system can be used to model genetic cartilage and bone disorders.

Effect of rapamycin on bone mass and strength in the α2(I)-G610C mouse model of osteogenesis imperfecta.

Osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) is commonly caused by heterozygous type I collagen structural mutations that disturb triple helix folding and integrity. This mutant-containing misfolded collagen accumulates in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and induces a form of ER stress associated with negative effects on osteoblast differentiation and maturation. Therapeutic induction of autophagy to degrade the mutant collagens could therefore be useful in ameliorating the ER stress and deleterious downstream consequences. To test this, we treated a mouse model of mild to moderate OI (α2(I) G610C) with dietary rapamycin from 3 to 8 weeks of age and effects on bone mass and mechanical properties were determined. OI bone mass and mechanics were, as previously reported, compromised compared to WT. While rapamycin treatment improved the trabecular parameters of WT and OI bones, the biomechanical deficits of OI bones were not rescued. Importantly, we show that rapamycin treatment suppressed the longitudinal and transverse growth of OI, but not WT, long bones. Our work demonstrates that dietary rapamycin offers no clinical benefit in this OI model and furthermore, the impact of rapamycin on OI bone growth could exacerbate the clinical consequences during periods of active bone growth in patients with OI caused by collagen misfolding mutations.

XBP1-Independent UPR Pathways Suppress C/EBP-ß Mediated Chondrocyte Differentiation in ER-Stress Related Skeletal Disease.

Schmid metaphyseal chondrodysplasia (MCDS) involves dwarfism and growth plate cartilage hypertrophic zone expansion resulting from dominant mutations in the hypertrophic zone collagen, Col10a1. Mouse models phenocopying MCDS through the expression of an exogenous misfolding protein in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in hypertrophic chondrocytes have demonstrated the central importance of ER stress in the pathology of MCDS. The resultant unfolded protein response (UPR) in affected chondrocytes involved activation of canonical ER stress sensors, IRE1, ATF6, and PERK with the downstream effect of disrupted chondrocyte differentiation. Here, we investigated the role of the highly conserved IRE1/XBP1 pathway in the pathology of MCDS. Mice with a MCDS collagen X p.N617K knock-in mutation (ColXN617K) were crossed with mice in which Xbp1 was inactivated specifically in cartilage (Xbp1CartΔEx2), generating the compound mutant, C/X. The severity of dwarfism and hypertrophic zone expansion in C/X did not differ significantly from ColXN617K, revealing surprising redundancy for the IRE1/XBP1 UPR pathway in the pathology of MCDS. Transcriptomic analyses of hypertrophic zone cartilage identified differentially expressed gene cohorts in MCDS that are pathologically relevant (XBP1-independent) or pathologically redundant (XBP1-dependent). XBP1-independent gene expression changes included large-scale transcriptional attenuation of genes encoding secreted proteins and disrupted differentiation from proliferative to hypertrophic chondrocytes. Moreover, these changes were consistent with disruption of C/EBP-ß, a master regulator of chondrocyte differentiation, by CHOP, a transcription factor downstream of PERK that inhibits C/EBP proteins, and down-regulation of C/EBP-ß transcriptional co-factors, GADD45-ß and RUNX2. Thus we propose that the pathology of MCDS is underpinned by XBP1 independent UPR-induced dysregulation of C/EBP-ß-mediated chondrocyte differentiation. Our data suggest that modulation of C/EBP-ß activity in MCDS chondrocytes may offer therapeutic opportunities.

Using CRISPR/Cas9 to generate a heterozygous COL2A1 p.R719C iPSC line (MCRIi019-A-6) model of human precocious osteoarthritis.

The human iPSC line MCRIi019-A-6 was generated using CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing to introduce a heterozygous COL2A1 exon 33 c.2155C>T (p.R719C) mutation into the control human iPSC line MCRIi019-A. Both the edited and parental lines display typical iPSC characteristics, including the expression of pluripotency markers, the ability to be differentiated into the three germ lines, and a normal karyotype. This cell line, along with the isogenic control line, can be used to study the molecular pathology of precocious osteoarthritis in a human model, more broadly understand type II collagenopathies, and explore novel therapeutic targets for this class of diseases.

Generation of a miR-26b stem-loop knockout human iPSC line, MCRIi019-A-1, using CRISPR/Cas9 editing.

miR-26b has been implicated in a wide range of human diseases, including cancer, diabetes, heart disease, Alzheimer's disease and osteoarthritis. To provide a tool to explore the importance of miR-26b in this broad context, we have generated and characterized a homozygous miR-26b stem-loop knockout human iPSC line. This gene-edited line exhibited a normal karyotype, expressed pluripotency markers and differentiated into cells representative of the three embryonic germ layers. This iPSC line will be valuable for studies investigating disease mechanisms and testing therapeutic strategies in vitro.

CRISPR/Cas9 editing to generate a heterozygous COL2A1 p.G1170S human chondrodysplasia iPSC line, MCRIi019-A-2, in a control iPSC line, MCRIi019-A.

To develop an in vitro disease model of a human chondrodysplasia, we used CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing to generate a heterozygous COL2A1 exon 50 c.3508 GGT > TCA (p.G1170S) mutation in a control human iPSC line. Both the control and COL2A1 mutant lines displayed typical iPSC characteristics, including normal cell morphology, expression of pluripotency markers, the ability to differentiate into endoderm, ectoderm and mesoderm lineages and normal karyotype. These chondrodysplasia mutant and isogenic control cell lines can be used to explore disease mechanisms underlying type II collagenopathies and aid in the discovery of new therapeutic strategies.