P2RX7 gene variants associate with altered inflammasome assembly and reduced pyroptosis in chronic nonbacterial osteomyelitis (CNO).

Chronic nonbacterial osteomyelitis (CNO), an autoinflammatory bone disease primarily affecting children, can cause pain, hyperostosis and fractures, affecting quality-of-life and psychomotor development. This study investigated CNO-associated variants in P2RX7, encoding for the ATP-dependent trans-membrane K+ channel P2X7, and their effects on NLRP3 inflammasome assembly. Whole exome sequencing in two related transgenerational CNO patients, and target sequencing of P2RX7 in a large CNO cohort (N = 190) were conducted. Results were compared with publicly available datasets and regional controls (N = 1873). Findings were integrated with demographic and clinical data. Patient-derived monocytes and genetically modified THP-1 cells were used to investigate potassium flux, inflammasome assembly, pyroptosis, and cytokine release. Rare presumably damaging P2RX7 variants were identified in two related CNO patients. Targeted P2RX7 sequencing identified 62 CNO patients with rare variants (32.4%), 11 of which (5.8%) carried presumably damaging variants (MAF <1%, SIFT "deleterious", Polyphen "probably damaging", CADD >20). This compared to 83 of 1873 controls (4.4%), 36 with rare and presumably damaging variants (1.9%). Across the CNO cohort, rare variants unique to one (Median: 42 versus 3.7) or more (≤11 patients) participants were over-represented when compared to 190 randomly selected controls. Patients with rare damaging variants more frequently experienced gastrointestinal symptoms and lymphadenopathy while having less spinal, joint and skin involvement (psoriasis). Monocyte-derived macrophages from patients, and genetically modified THP-1-derived macrophages reconstituted with CNO-associated P2RX7 variants exhibited altered potassium flux, inflammasome assembly, IL-1ß and IL-18 release, and pyroptosis. Damaging P2RX7 variants occur in a small subset of CNO patients, and rare P2RX7 variants may represent a CNO risk factor. Observations argue for inflammasome inhibition and/or cytokine blockade and may allow future patient stratification and individualized care.

Cyclic AMP Response Element Modulator-α Suppresses PD-1 Expression and Promotes Effector CD4+ T Cells in Psoriasis.

Effector CD4+ T lymphocytes contribute to inflammation and tissue damage in psoriasis, but the underlying molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood. The transcription factor CREMα controls effector T cell function in people with systemic autoimmune diseases. The inhibitory surface coreceptor PD-1 plays a key role in the control of effector T cell function and its therapeutic inhibition in patients with cancer can cause psoriasis. In this study, we show that CD4+ T cells from patients with psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis exhibit increased production of IL-17 but decreased expression of IL-2 and PD-1. In genetically modified mice and Jurkat T cells CREMα expression was linked to low PD-1 levels. We demonstrate that CREMα is recruited to the proximal promoter of PDCD1 in which it trans-represses gene expression and corecruits DNMT3a-mediating DNA methylation. As keratinocytes limit inflammation by PD-1 ligand expression and, in this study, reported reduced expression of PD-1 on CD4+ T cells is linked to low IL-2 and high IL-17A production, our studies reveal a molecular pathway in T cells from people with psoriasis that can deserve clinical exploitation.

RIP2-deficiency induces inflammation in response to SV40 Large T induced genotoxic stress through altered ROS homeostasis.

Deciphering signaling pathways that regulate the complex interplay between inflammation and cell death is a key challenge in understanding innate immune responses. Over recent years, receptor interacting protein (RIP) kinases have been described to regulate the interplay between inflammation and cell death. Whereas RIP1 and 3, the most well described members of the RIP kinase family, play important roles in necroptosis, RIP2's involvement in regulating inflammation, cell death processes and cancer is less well described and controversially discussed. Here, we demonstrate that RIP2 exerts immune regulatory functions by regulating mitochondrial damage and mitochondrial superoxide production in response to SV40 LT-induced genotoxic stress by the induction of ULK1-phosphorylation, therefore regulating the expression of interferon stimulated genes (ISGs) and NLRP3-inflammasome dependent IL-1ß release. Because RIP2 is upregulated and/or activated in autoimmune/inflammatory disease and cancer, observations from this study promise implications of RIP kinases in human disease.

The microRNA miR-182 is induced by IL-2 and promotes clonal expansion of activated helper T lymphocytes.

After being activated by antigen, helper T lymphocytes switch from a resting state to clonal expansion. This switch requires inactivation of the transcription factor Foxo1, a suppressor of proliferation expressed in resting helper T lymphocytes. In the early antigen-dependent phase of expansion, Foxo1 is inactivated by antigen receptor-mediated post-translational modifications. Here we show that in the late phase of expansion, Foxo1 was no longer post-translationally regulated but was inhibited post-transcriptionally by the interleukin 2 (IL-2)-induced microRNA miR-182. Specific inhibition of miR-182 in helper T lymphocytes limited their population expansion in vitro and in vivo. Our results demonstrate a central role for miR-182 in the physiological regulation of IL-2-driven helper T cell-mediated immune responses and open new therapeutic possibilities.

Validation of reference genes for whole blood gene expression analysis in cord blood of preterm and full-term neonates and peripheral blood of healthy adults.

BACKGROUND: Preterm birth is the leading cause of neonatal morbidity and mortality, but research efforts in neonatology are complicated due to the unavailability of large volume blood samples. Whole blood assays can be used to overcome this problem by performing both functional and gene expression studies using small amounts of blood. Gene expression studies using RT-qPCR estimate mRNA-levels of target genes normalized to reference genes. The goal of this study was to identify and validate stable reference genes applicable to cord blood samples obtained from developing neonates of different gestational age groups as well as to adult peripheral blood samples. Eight reference gene candidates (ACTB, B2M, GAPDH, GUSB, HPRT, PPIB, RPLP0, RPL13) were analyzed using the three published software algorithms Bestkeeper, GeNorm and NormFinder. RESULTS: A normalization factor consisting of ACTB and PPIB allows for comparative expression analyses of neonatal samples from different gestational age groups. Normalization factors consisting of GAPDH and PPIB or ACTB and GAPDH are suitable when samples from preterm and full-term neonates and adults are compared. However, all candidate reference genes except RPLP0 exhibited significant intergroup gene expression variance and a higher gene expression towards an older age which resulted in a small but statistically significant systematic bias. Systematic analysis of RNA-seq data revealed new reference gene candidates with potentially superior stability. CONCLUSIONS: The current study identified suitable normalization factors and proposed the use of the additional single gene RPLP0 to avoid systematic bias. This combination will enable comparative analyses not only between neonates of different gestational ages, but also between neonates and adults, as it facilitates more detailed investigations of developmental gene expression changes. The use of software algorithms did not prevent unintended systematic bias. This generally highlights the need for careful validation of such results to prevent false interpretation of potential age-dependent changes in gene expression. To identify the most stable reference genes in the future, RNA-seq based global approaches are recommended.

Immune modulating effects of receptor interacting protein 2 (RIP2) in autoinflammation and immunity.

Receptor-interacting protein 2 (RIP2) is a kinase that is involved in downstream signaling of nuclear oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptors NOD1 and 2 sensing bacterial peptidoglycans. RIP2-deficiency or targeting of RIP2 by pharmaceutical inhibitors partially ameliorates inflammatory diseases by reducing pro-inflammatory signaling in response to peptidoglycans. However, RIP2 is widely expressed and interacts with several other proteins suggesting additional functions outside the NOD-signaling pathway. In this review, we discuss the immunological functions of RIP2 and its possible role in autoinflammation and immunity.

CASP1 variants influence subcellular caspase-1 localization, pyroptosome formation, pro-inflammatory cell death and macrophage deformability.

CASP1 variants result in reduced enzymatic activity of procaspase-1 and impaired IL-1ß release. Despite this, affected individuals can develop systemic autoinflammatory disease. These seemingly contradictory observations have only partially been explained by increased NF-κB activation through prolonged interaction of variant procaspase-1 with RIP2. To identify further disease underlying pathomechanisms, we established an in vitro model using shRNA-directed knock-down of procaspase-1 followed by viral transduction of human monocytes (THP-1) with plasmids encoding for wild-type procaspase-1, disease-associated CASP1 variants (p.L265S, p.R240Q) or a missense mutation in the active center of procaspase-1 (p.C285A). THP1-derived macrophages carrying CASP1 variants exhibited mutation-specific molecular alterations. We here provide in vitro evidence for abnormal pyroptosome formation (p.C285A, p.240Q, p.L265S), impaired nuclear (pro)caspase-1 localization (p.L265S), reduced pro-inflammatory cell death (p.C285A) and changes in macrophage deformability that may contribute to disease pathophysiology of patients with CASP1 variants. This offers previously unknown molecular pathomechanisms in patients with systemic autoinflammatory disease.

Immunomodulatory Effects of Dendritic Poly(ethyleneimine) Glycoarchitectures on Human Multiple Myeloma Cell Lines, Mesenchymal Stromal Cells, and in Vitro Differentiated Macrophages for an Ideal Drug Delivery System in the Local Treatment of Multiple Myeloma.

The use of a drug delivery system (DDS) represents a novel therapeutic approach in the treatment of multiple myeloma in bone lesion. We show the immunomodulatory effects of anionic and cationic dendritic poly(ethyleneimine) glycoarchitectures (PEI-DGAs) on human myeloma cell lines and cells in their microenvironment, in vitro differentiated macrophages, and mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs). PEI-DGAs do not influence the secretion of IL-6, which is a major growth and survival factor in multiple myeloma. Cationic PEI-DGAs in turn have cytostatic properties on multiple myeloma cell lines. Anionic PEI-DGAs induce the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines IL-1ß, TNFα, and IL-6 in macrophages and MSCs, whereas cationic PEI-DGAs do not. Macrophages and MSCs show remarkably high cell viability in the presence of high concentration of PEI-DGAs. RNA sequencing of MSCs exposed to cationic PEI-DGAs supports the hypothesis that smaller cationic PEI-DGAs are less toxic and could improve osteogenic differentiation in an ideal DDS.

p53-dependent transcription and tumor suppression are not affected in Set7/9-deficient mice.

Methylation of specific lysine residues in the C terminus of p53 is thought to govern p53-dependent transcription following genotoxic and oncogenic stress. In particular, Set7/9 (KMT7)-mediated monomethylation of human p53 at lysine 372 (p53K372me1) was suggested to be essential for p53 activation in human cell lines. This finding was confirmed in a Set7/9 knockout mouse model (Kurash et al., 2008). In an independent knockout mouse strain deficient in Set7/9, we have investigated its involvement in p53 regulation and find that cells from these mice are normal in their ability to induce p53-dependent transcription following genotoxic and oncogenic insults. Most importantly, we detect no impairment in canonical p53 functions in these mice, indicating that Set7/9-mediated methylation of p53 does not seem to represent a major regulatory event and does not appreciably control p53 activity in vivo.

An optimized whole blood assay measuring expression and activity of NLRP3, NLRC4 and AIM2 inflammasomes.

The proinflammatory protease caspase-1 plays pivotal roles in central pathways of innate immunity, thereby contributing to pathogen clearance. Beside its physiological role, dysregulated activity of caspase-1 is known to contribute to an increasing number of diseases. In this study, we optimized and validated a low-volume human whole blood assay facilitating the measurement of caspase-1 activation and inflammasome-related gene expression upon stimulation of the NLRP3, NLRC4 or AIM2 inflammasome. Using the NLRP3 inflammasome specific inhibitor MCC950, we were able to measure the activity of canonical or alternative NLRP3 pathways, AIM2 and NLRC4 inflammasomes in whole blood. Based on our data we assume a superposition of NLRP3 and NLRC4 inflammasome activities in human whole blood following stimulation with S. typhimurium. The optimized whole blood assay may be suitable for diagnostic and research purposes for pediatric patients who can only donate small amounts of blood.

Osteocyte Regulation of Receptor Activator of NF-κB Ligand/Osteoprotegerin in a Sheep Model of Osteoporosis.

Osteoporosis induction in a sheep model by steroid administration combined with ovariectomy recapitulates decreased bone formation and substandard matrix mineralization in patients. Recently, the role of osteocytes has been frequently addressed, with focus on their role in osteoclastogenesis. However, the quantification of receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL) and osteoprotegerin (OPG) signaling in osteocytes was not studied in sheep. The current study reproduced the sheep model of osteoporosis to study the RANKL/OPG ratio correlation to the method of osteoporosis induction. We investigated the induction of osteoporosis after 8 months using 31 female merino land sheep divided into four groups: control, ovariectomy, ovariectomy with dietary limitation, and ovariectomy with dietary limitation and steroid injection. In accordance to previous reports, the present study showed trabecular thinning, higher numbers of apoptotic osteocytes, and imbalanced metabolism, leading to defective mineralization. The global RANKL/OPG ratio in the spine after 8 months of steroid and dietary treatment was not different from that of the control. Interestingly, assessment of the osteocyte-specific RANKL/OPG ratio showed that the steroid-induced osteoporosis in its late progressive phase stimulates RANKL expression in osteocytes. Sclerostin is suggested to induce RANKL expression in osteocytes. The findings of this study can contribute to further explain the success of sclerostin antibodies in treating osteoporotic patients despite increased osteocyte-expressed RANKL.

A tissue-based approach to selection of reference genes for quantitative real-time PCR in a sheep osteoporosis model.

BACKGROUND: In order to better understand the multifactorial nature of osteoporosis, animal models are utilized and compared to healthy controls. Female sheep are well established as a model for osteoporosis induced by ovariectomy, calcium and vitamin D low diet, application of steroids, or a combination of these treatments. Transcriptional studies can be performed by applying quantitative real time PCR (RT-qPCR). RT-qPCR estimates mRNA-levels of target genes in relation to reference genes. A chosen set of reference genes should not show variation under experimental conditions. Currently, no standard reference genes are accepted for all tissue types and experimental conditions. Studies examining reference genes for sheep are rare and only one study described stable reference in mandibular bone. However, this type of bone differs from trabecular bone where most osteoporotic fractures occur. The present study aimed at identifying a set of reference genes for relative quantification of transcriptional activity of ovine spine bone and ovine in vitro differentiated mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) for reliable comparability. METHODS: Twelve candidate reference genes belonging to different functional classes were selected and their expression was measured from cultured ovMSCs (n = 18) and ovine bone samples (n = 16), respectively. RefFinder was used to rank the candidate genes. RESULTS: We identified B2M, GAPDH, RPL19 and YWHAZ as the best combination of reference genes for normalization of RT-qPCR results for transcriptional analyses of these ovine samples. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates the importance of applying a set of reference genes for RT-qPCR analysis in sheep. Based on our data we recommend using four identified reference genes for relative quantification of gene expression studies in ovine bone or for in vitro experiments with osteogenically differentiated ovine MSCs.

Fluorescent tags influence the enzymatic activity and subcellular localization of procaspase-1.

Subcellular localization studies and life cell imaging approaches usually benefit from fusion-reporter proteins, such as enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) and mCherry to the proteins of interest. However, such manipulations have several risks, including protein misfolding, altered protein shuttling, or functional impairment when compared to the wild-type proteins. Here, we demonstrate altered subcellular distribution and function of the pro-inflammatory enzyme procaspase-1 as a result of fusion with the reporter protein mCherry. Our observations are of central importance to further investigations of subcellular behavior and possible protein-protein interactions of naturally occurring genetic variants of human procaspase-1 which have recently been linked to autoinflammatory disorders.

Current knowledge on procaspase-1 variants with reduced or abrogated enzymatic activity in autoinflammatory disease.

Caspase-1 is a proinflammatory enzyme that is essential in many inflammatory conditions including infectious, autoimmune, and autoinflammatory disorders. The inflammation is mainly mediated by the generation of inflammasomes that activate caspase-1 and subsequently interleukin (IL)-1ß and IL-18. In addition, homotypic CARD/CARD interaction of procaspase-1 with RIP2 and thereby activation of the NF-κB pathways may play some role in the inflammation. However, normally, this pathway seems to become downregulated rapidly by the cleavage and excretion of RIP2 by active (pro-)caspase-1. In patients with unexplained recurrent systemic inflammation, CASP1 variants were detected, which often destabilized the caspase-1 dimer interface. Obviously, the resulting decreased or abrogated enzymatic activity and IL-1ß production did not prevent the febrile episodes. As an unexpected finding, the inactive procaspase-1 variants significantly enhanced proinflammatory signaling by increasing RIP2 mediated NF-κB activation in an in vitro cell transfection model. A likely reason is the failure of inactive procaspase-1 to cleave bound RIP2 and also to mediate its excretion out of the intracelluar space thereby keeping the RIP2-NF-κB pathway upregulated. Hence, proinflammatory effects of enzymatically inactive procaspase-1 variants may partially explain the inflammatory episodes of the patients.

Bowel Management in Hirschsprung Disease-Pre-, Peri- and Postoperative Care for Primary Pull-Through.

(1) Background: Bowel management contributes throughout the pathway of care for children with Hirschsprung. Preoperative bowel management prepares the child and family for the pull-through surgery. Perioperative bowel management supports early recovery and tailored bowel management in the follow-up supports the achievement of social continence. (2) Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional assessment of our institutional bowel management program to illustrate the pre-, peri- and postoperative bowel management strategies. (3) Results: A total of 31 children underwent primary pull-through, 23 without a stoma and 8 with a stoma, at a median age of 9 months. All children without a stoma were prepared for surgery by using rectal irrigations. Children with a stoma were prepared for surgery with a transfer of stoma effluent. Transanal irrigation supported early recovery. (4) Conclusions: Bowel management is a key pillar of the management of children with Hirschsprung disease. Incorporating bowel management in the pathway of care facilitates primary pull-through and supports perioperative recovery.

DNA methylation patterns in CD4+ T-cells separate psoriasis patients from healthy controls, and skin psoriasis from psoriatic arthritis.

Background: Psoriasis is an autoimmune/inflammatory disorder primarily affecting the skin. Chronic joint inflammation triggers the diagnosis of psoriatic arthritis (PsA) in approximately one-third of psoriasis patients. Although joint disease typically follows the onset of skin psoriasis, in around 15% of cases it is the initial presentation, which can result in diagnostic delays. The pathophysiological mechanisms underlying psoriasis and PsA are not yet fully understood, but there is evidence pointing towards epigenetic dysregulation involving CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells. Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate disease-associated DNA methylation patterns in CD4+ T-cells from psoriasis and PsA patients that may represent potential diagnostic and/or prognostic biomarkers. Methods: PBMCs were collected from 12 patients with chronic plaque psoriasis and 8 PsA patients, and 8 healthy controls. CD4+ T-cells were separated through FACS sorting, and DNA methylation profiling was performed (Illumina EPIC850K arrays). Bioinformatic analyses, including gene ontology (GO) and KEGG pathway analysis, were performed using R. To identify genes under the control of interferon (IFN), the Interferome database was consulted, and DNA Methylation Scores were calculated. Results: Numbers and proportions of CD4+ T-cell subsets (naïve, central memory, effector memory, CD45RA re-expressing effector memory cells) did not vary between controls, skin psoriasis and PsA patients. 883 differentially methylated positions (DMPs) affecting 548 genes were identified between controls and "all" psoriasis patients. Principal component and partial least-squares discriminant analysis separated controls from skin psoriasis and PsA patients. GO analysis considering promoter DMPs delivered hypermethylation of genes involved in "regulation of wound healing, spreading of epidermal cells", "negative regulation of cell-substrate junction organization" and "negative regulation of focal adhesion assembly". Comparing controls and "all" psoriasis, a majority of DMPs mapped to IFN-related genes (69.2%). Notably, DNA methylation profiles also distinguished skin psoriasis from PsA patients (2,949 DMPs/1,084 genes) through genes affecting "cAMP-dependent protein kinase inhibitor activity" and "cAMP-dependent protein kinase regulator activity". Treatment with cytokine inhibitors (IL-17/TNF) corrected DNA methylation patterns of IL-17/TNF-associated genes, and methylation scores correlated with skin disease activity scores (PASI). Conclusion: DNA methylation profiles in CD4+ T-cells discriminate between skin psoriasis and PsA. DNA methylation signatures may be applied for quantification of disease activity and patient stratification towards individualized treatment.

Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Activation by Benzo[a]pyrene Prevents Development of Septic Shock and Fatal Outcome in a Mouse Model of Systemic Salmonella enterica Infection.

This study focused on immunomodulatory effects of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) activation through benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) during systemic bacterial infection. Using a well-established mouse model of systemic Salmonella enterica (S.E.) infection, we studied the influence of BaP on the cellular and humoral immune response and the outcome of disease. BaP exposure significantly reduced mortality, which is mainly caused by septic shock. Surprisingly, the bacterial burden in BaP-exposed surviving mice was significantly higher compared to non-exposed mice. During the early phase of infection (days 1-3 post-infection (p.i.)), the transcription of proinflammatory factors (i.e., IL-12, IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-18) was induced faster under BaP exposure. Moreover, BaP supported the activity of antigen-presenting cells (i.e., CD64 (FcγRI), MHC II, NO radicals, phagocytosis) at the site of infection. However, early in infection, the anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10 and IL-22 were also locally and systemically upregulated in BaP-exposed S.E.-infected mice. BaP-exposure resulted in long-term persistence of salmonellae up to day 90 p.i., which was accompanied by significantly elevated S.E.-specific antibody responses (i.e., IgG1, IgG2c). In summary, these data suggest that BaP-induced AhR activation is capable of preventing a fatal outcome of systemic S.E. infection, but may result in long-term bacterial persistence, which, in turn, may support the development of chronic inflammation.

CK2 Inhibition Prior to Status Epilepticus Persistently Enhances KCa2 Function in CA1 Which Slows Down Disease Progression.

PURPOSE: Epilepsy therapy is currently based on anti-seizure drugs that do not modify the course of the disease, i.e., they are not anti-epileptogenic in nature. Previously, we observed that in vivo casein kinase 2 (CK2) inhibition with 4,5,6,7-tetrabromotriazole (TBB) had anti-epileptogenic effects in the acute epilepsy slice model. METHODS: Here, we pretreated rats with TBB in vivo prior to the establishment of a pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus (SE) in order to analyze the long-term sequelae of such a preventive TBB administration. RESULTS: We found that TBB pretreatment delayed onset of seizures after pilocarpine and slowed down disease progression during epileptogenesis. This was accompanied with a reduced proportion of burst firing neurons in the CA1 area. Western blot analyses demonstrated that CA1 tissue from TBB-pretreated epileptic animals contained significantly less CK2 than TBB-pretreated controls. On the transcriptional level, TBB pretreatment led to differential gene expression changes of KCa2.2, but also of HCN1 and HCN3 channels. Thus, in the presence of the HCN channel blocker ZD7288, pretreatment with TBB rescued the afterhyperpolarizing potential (AHP) as well as spike frequency adaptation in epileptic animals, both of which are prominent functions of KCa2 channels. CONCLUSION: These data indicate that TBB pretreatment prior to SE slows down disease progression during epileptogenesis involving increased KCa2 function, probably due to a persistently decreased CK2 protein expression.

Benzo(a)pyrene attenuates the pattern-recognition-receptor induced proinflammatory phenotype of murine macrophages by inducing IL-10 expression in an aryl hydrocarbon receptor-dependent manner.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) are environmental contaminants known to be immunosuppressive. Most effects of BaP towards immune cells are thought to be mediated through activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). The AhR is a ligand-activated transcription factor, which plays a critical modulatory role in various cells during immune response. Macrophages are key players in innate immunity against intracellular bacteria and are discussed to be a target of AhR-mediated immune regulation. However, so far there is only incomplete knowledge about the effects of BaP on activated macrophages and whether these effects are AhR-dependent in each case. Using murine bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs) stimulated with heat-killed salmonellae as a source of different pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) for stimulation of different pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) as an in-vitro model, we studied the immunomodulatory effects of low-dose BaP exposure. PRR-activated BMMs produced nitric oxide (NO) and a spectrum of proinflammatory cytokines, i.e. tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, and IL-12 but also the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. While BaP exposure suppressed the production of proinflammatory cytokines, the secretion of IL-10 was augmented. Moreover, BaP exposure increased the expression of major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II), CD14, Fcγ receptor I (FcγRI/CD64), or CD86, enhanced NO production and phagocytosis what may be beneficial for phagocytosis and killing of microbial pathogens. Of note, without PRR activation low-dose BaP exposure has little influence on the macrophage phenotype. BMMs from AhR-deficient (Ahr-/-) mice were widely refractory to BaP-induced modulation of cytokine production, surface marker expression, and functional properties in response to PAMPs stimulation, indicating that these effects are dependent on AhR. In summary, these data suggest that induction of AhR-mediated signalling pathways by BaP may attenuate the proinflammatory phenotype of PRR-activated BMMs, while activating IL-10-mediated anti-inflammatory properties but also enhancing uptake and killing of pathogens as well as antigen presentation. Together these features imply a favourable role of BaP exposure for macrophage functions in an ongoing immune response. However, the strong induction of IL-10 may lead to defective pathogen clearance and subsequently to chronic persistent infection. This concept suggests an inhibitory rather than a supporting influence of environmental BaP on immunity to infection or cancer and also emphasises the important regulatory role of AhR in immunity and inflammation.

Arrest of Root Carious Lesions via Sodium Fluoride, Chlorhexidine and Silver Diamine Fluoride In Vitro.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the root carious lesion arrest of chlorhexidine (CHX) and silver diamine fluoride (SDF) varnishes and/or sodium fluoride rinses (NaF) in vitro. BACKGROUND: Effective and easily applicable interventions for treating root carious lesions are needed, as these lesions are highly prevalent amongst elderly individuals. METHODS: In 100 bovine dentin samples, artificial root carious lesions were induced using acetic acid and a continuous-culture Lactobacillus rhamnosus biofilm model. One quarter of each induced lesion was excavated and baseline dentinal bacterial counts assessed as Colony-Forming-Units (CFU) per mg. Samples were allocated to one of four treatments (n = 25/group): (1) untreated control; (2) 38% SDF or (3) 35% CHX varnish, each applied once, plus 500 ppm daily NaF rinse in the subsequent lesion progression phase; and (4) daily NaF rinses only. Samples were re-transferred to the biofilm model and submitted to a cariogenic challenge. After six days, another quarter of each lesion was used to assess bacterial counts and the remaining sample was used to assess integrated mineral loss (ΔZ) using microradiography. RESULTS: ΔZ did not differ significantly between control (median (25th/75th percentiles): 9082 (7859/9782) vol % × µm), NaF (6704 (4507/9574) and SDF 7206 (5389/8082)) (p < 0.05/Kruskal-Wallis test). CHX significantly reduced ΔZ (3385 (2447/4496)) compared with all other groups (p < 0.05). Bacterial numbers did not differ significantly between control (1451 (875/2644) CFU/µg) and NaF (750 (260/1401)) (p > 0.05). SDF reduced bacterial counts (360 (136/1166)) significantly compared with control (p < 0.05). CHX reduced bacterial counts (190 (73/517)) significantly compared with NaF and control (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: CHX varnish plus regular NaF rinses arrested root carious lesions most successfully.