Unique pattern of neutrophil migration and function during tumor progression.

Although neutrophils have been linked to the formation of the pre-metastatic niche, the mechanism of their migration to distant, uninvolved tissues has remained elusive. We report that bone marrow neutrophils from mice with early-stage cancer exhibited much more spontaneous migration than that of control neutrophils from tumor-free mice. These cells lacked immunosuppressive activity but had elevated rates of oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis, and increased production of ATP, relative to that of control neutrophils. Their enhanced spontaneous migration was mediated by autocrine ATP signaling through purinergic receptors. In ectopic tumor models and late stages of cancer, bone marrow neutrophils demonstrated potent immunosuppressive activity. However, these cells had metabolic and migratory activity indistinguishable from that of control neutrophils. A similar pattern of migration was observed for neutrophils and polymorphonuclear myeloid-derived suppressor cells from patients with cancer. These results elucidate the dynamic changes that neutrophils undergo in cancer and demonstrate the mechanism of neutrophils' contribution to early tumor dissemination.

Ferroptosis of tumour neutrophils causes immune suppression in cancer.

Ferroptosis is a non-apoptotic form of regulated cell death that is triggered by the discoordination of regulatory redox mechanisms culminating in massive peroxidation of polyunsaturated phospholipids. Ferroptosis inducers have shown considerable effectiveness in killing tumour cells in vitro, yet there has been no obvious success in experimental animal models, with the notable exception of immunodeficient mice1,2. This suggests that the effect of ferroptosis on immune cells remains poorly understood. Pathologically activated neutrophils (PMNs), termed myeloid-derived suppressor cells (PMN-MDSCs), are major negative regulators of anti-tumour immunity3-5. Here we found that PMN-MDSCs in the tumour microenvironment spontaneously die by ferroptosis. Although decreasing the presence of PMN-MDSCs, ferroptosis induces the release of oxygenated lipids and limits the activity of human and mouse T cells. In immunocompetent mice, genetic and pharmacological inhibition of ferroptosis abrogates suppressive activity of PMN-MDSCs, reduces tumour progression and synergizes with immune checkpoint blockade to suppress the tumour growth. By contrast, induction of ferroptosis in immunocompetent mice promotes tumour growth. Thus, ferroptosis is a unique and targetable immunosuppressive mechanism of PMN-MDSCs in the tumour microenvironment that can be pharmacologically modulated to limit tumour progression.

Identification of Residues Controlling Restriction versus Enhancing Activities of IFITM Proteins on Entry of Human Coronaviruses.

Interferon-induced transmembrane proteins (IFITMs) are restriction factors that inhibit the infectious entry of many enveloped RNA viruses. However, we demonstrated previously that human IFITM2 and IFITM3 are essential host factors facilitating the entry of human coronavirus (HCoV) OC43. In a continuing effort to decipher the molecular mechanism underlying IFITM differential modulation of HCoV entry, we investigated the roles of structural motifs important for IFITM protein posttranslational modifications, intracellular trafficking, and oligomerization in modulating the entry of five HCoVs. We found that three distinct mutations in IFITM1 or IFITM3 converted the host restriction factors to enhance entry driven by the spike proteins of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and/or Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). First, replacement of IFITM3 tyrosine 20 with either alanine or aspartic acid to mimic unphosphorylated or phosphorylated IFITM3 reduced its activity to inhibit the entry of HCoV-NL63 and -229E but enhanced the entry of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV. Second, replacement of IFITM3 tyrosine 99 with either alanine or aspartic acid reduced its activity to inhibit the entry of HCoV-NL63 and SARS-CoV but promoted the entry of MERS-CoV. Third, deletion of the carboxyl-terminal 12 amino acid residues from IFITM1 enhanced the entry of MERS-CoV and HCoV-OC43. These findings suggest that these residues and structural motifs of IFITM proteins are key determinants for modulating the entry of HCoVs, most likely through interaction with viral and/or host cellular components at the site of viral entry to modulate the fusion of viral envelope and cellular membranes.IMPORTANCE The differential effects of IFITM proteins on the entry of HCoVs that utilize divergent entry pathways and membrane fusion mechanisms even when using the same receptor make the HCoVs a valuable system for comparative investigation of the molecular mechanisms underlying IFITM restriction or promotion of virus entry into host cells. Identification of three distinct mutations that converted IFITM1 or IFITM3 from inhibitors to enhancers of MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV spike protein-mediated entry revealed key structural motifs or residues determining the biological activities of IFITM proteins. These findings have thus paved the way for further identification of viral and host factors that interact with those structural motifs of IFITM proteins to differentially modulate the infectious entry of HCoVs.

Activation of Stimulator of Interferon Genes in Hepatocytes Suppresses the Replication of Hepatitis B Virus.

Induction of interferon and proinflammatory cytokines is a hallmark of the infection of many different viruses. However, hepatitis B virus (HBV) does not elicit a detectable cytokine response in infected hepatocytes. In order to investigate the molecular mechanism underlying the innate immune evasion, a functional cyclic GMP-AMP (cGAMP) synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway was reconstituted in a human hepatoma cell line supporting tetracycline-inducible HBV replication. It was demonstrated that induction of HBV replication neither activated nor inhibited this cytosolic DNA sensing pathway. However, human hepatoma cells, as well as immortalized mouse hepatocytes, express low levels of STING, which upon activation by cGAMP, the natural ligand of STING, led to induction of a proinflammatory cytokine response. Treatment of immortalized mouse hepatocytes supporting HBV replication with either cGAMP or a small molecule pharmacologic STING agonist significantly reduced viral DNA in a STING- and Janus kinase 1-dependent manner. Moreover, cGAMP treatment was able to induce inflammatory cytokine gene expression and inhibit the transcription of covalently closed circular DNA in HBV-infected human hepatoma cells expressing sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide, an essential receptor for HBV infection of hepatocytes. The studies reported here and previously (F. Guo et al., Antimicrob Agents Chemother 59:1273-1281, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.04321-14) thus support the notion that pharmacological activation of STING in macrophages and hepatocytes induces host innate responses that can efficiently control HBV replication. Hence, despite not playing a significant role in host innate immune response to HBV infection of hepatocytes, STING is potentially a valuable target for immunotherapy of chronic hepatitis B.

Human T-lymphotropic virus type 1-infected cells secrete exosomes that contain Tax protein.

Human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is the causative agent of adult T-cell leukemia and HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis. The HTLV-1 transactivator protein Tax controls many critical cellular pathways, including host cell DNA damage response mechanisms, cell cycle progression, and apoptosis. Extracellular vesicles called exosomes play critical roles during pathogenic viral infections as delivery vehicles for host and viral components, including proteins, mRNA, and microRNA. We hypothesized that exosomes derived from HTLV-1-infected cells contain unique host and viral proteins that may contribute to HTLV-1-induced pathogenesis. We found exosomes derived from infected cells to contain Tax protein and proinflammatory mediators as well as viral mRNA transcripts, including Tax, HBZ, and Env. Furthermore, we observed that exosomes released from HTLV-1-infected Tax-expressing cells contributed to enhanced survival of exosome-recipient cells when treated with Fas antibody. This survival was cFLIP-dependent, with Tax showing induction of NF-κB in exosome-recipient cells. Finally, IL-2-dependent CTLL-2 cells that received Tax-containing exosomes were protected from apoptosis through activation of AKT. Similar experiments with primary cultures showed protection and survival of peripheral blood mononuclear cells even in the absence of phytohemagglutinin/IL-2. Surviving cells contained more phosphorylated Rb, consistent with the role of Tax in regulation of the cell cycle. Collectively, these results suggest that exosomes may play an important role in extracellular delivery of functional HTLV-1 proteins and mRNA to recipient cells.

Myocyte enhancer factor (MEF)-2 plays essential roles in T-cell transformation associated with HTLV-1 infection by stabilizing complex between Tax and CREB.

BACKGROUND: The exact molecular mechanisms regarding HTLV-1 Tax-mediated viral gene expression and CD4 T-cell transformation have yet to be fully delineated. Herein, utilizing virus-infected primary CD4+ T cells and the virus-producing cell line, MT-2, we describe the involvement and regulation of Myocyte enhancer factor-2 (specifically MEF-2A) during the course of HTLV-1 infection and associated disease syndrome. RESULTS: Inhibition of MEF-2 expression by shRNA and its activity by HDAC9 led to reduced viral replication and T-cell transformation in correlation with a heightened expression of MEF-2 in ATL patients. Mechanistically, MEF-2 was recruited to the viral promoter (LTR, long terminal repeat) in the context of chromatin, and constituted Tax/CREB transcriptional complex via direct binding to the HTLV-1 LTR. Furthermore, an increase in MEF-2 expression was observed upon infection in an extent similar to CREB (known Tax-interacting transcription factor), and HATs (p300, CBP, and p/CAF). Confocal imaging confirmed MEF-2 co-localization with Tax and these proteins were also shown to interact by co-immunoprecipitation. MEF-2 stabilization of Tax/CREB complex was confirmed by a novel promoter-binding assay that highlighted the involvement of NFAT (nuclear factor of activated T cells) in this process via Tax-mediated activation of calcineurin (a calcium-dependent serine-threonine phosphatase). MEF-2-integrated signaling pathways (PI3K/Akt, NF-κB, MAPK, JAK/STAT, and TGF-ß) were also activated during HTLV-1 infection of primary CD4+ T cells, possibly regulating MEF-2 activity. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrate the involvement of MEF-2 in Tax-mediated LTR activation, viral replication, and T-cell transformation in correlation with its heightened expression in ATL patients through direct binding to DNA within the HTLV-1 LTR.

Inhibition of endoplasmic reticulum-resident glucosidases impairs severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus and human coronavirus NL63 spike protein-mediated entry by altering the glycan processing of angiotensin I-converting enzyme 2.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-resident glucosidases I and II sequentially trim the three terminal glucose moieties on the N-linked glycans attached to nascent glycoproteins. These reactions are the first steps of N-linked glycan processing and are essential for proper folding and function of many glycoproteins. Because most of the viral envelope glycoproteins contain N-linked glycans, inhibition of ER glucosidases with derivatives of 1-deoxynojirimycin, i.e., iminosugars, efficiently disrupts the morphogenesis of a broad spectrum of enveloped viruses. However, like viral envelope proteins, the cellular receptors of many viruses are also glycoproteins. It is therefore possible that inhibition of ER glucosidases not only compromises virion production but also disrupts expression and function of viral receptors and thus inhibits virus entry into host cells. Indeed, we demonstrate here that iminosugar treatment altered the N-linked glycan structure of angiotensin I-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), which did not affect its expression on the cell surface or its binding of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) spike glycoprotein. However, alteration of N-linked glycans of ACE2 impaired its ability to support the transduction of SARS-CoV and human coronavirus NL63 (HCoV-NL63) spike glycoprotein-pseudotyped lentiviral particles by disruption of the viral envelope protein-triggered membrane fusion. Hence, in addition to reducing the production of infectious virions, inhibition of ER glucosidases also impairs the entry of selected viruses via a post-receptor-binding mechanism.

Lack of recall response to Tax in ATL and HAM/TSP patients but not in asymptomatic carriers of human T-cell leukemia virus type 1.

PURPOSE & METHODS: The immunopathogenic mechanisms responsible for debilitating neurodegenerative and oncologic diseases associated with human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) are not fully understood. Quality of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) is being increasingly associated with the outcome of persistent HTLV-1 infection. In this respect, a patient cohort (from HTLV-1 endemic region) consisting of seronegative controls (controls), asymptomatic carriers (ACs), and patients with adult T-cell leukemia (ATL) or HTLV-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP) was analyzed for CD8(+) T cells polyfunctionality in response to the viral antigen Tax. RESULTS: Compared to ACs, ATL and HAM/TSP patients had lower frequency and polyfunctionality of CTLs in response to Tax suggesting dysfunction of CD8(+) T cells in these individuals. As an underlying mechanism, programmed death-1 (PD-1) receptor was found to be highly unregulated in Tax-responsive as well as total CD8(+) T cells from ATL and HAM/TSP but not from ACs and directly correlated with the lack of polyfunctionality in these individuals. Further, PD-1 expression showed a direct whereas MIP-1α expression had an indirect correlation with the proviral load providing new insights about the immunopathogenesis of HTLV-associated diseases. Additionally, we identified key cytokine signatures defining the immune activation status of clinical samples by the luminex assay. CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, our findings suggest that reconstitution of fully functional CTLs, stimulation of MIP-1α expression, and/or blockade of the PD-1 pathway are potential approaches for immunotherapy / therapeutic vaccine against HTLV-mediated diseases.

Hepatitis C Virus Infection: Host⁻Virus Interaction and Mechanisms of Viral Persistence.

Hepatitis C (HCV) is a major cause of liver disease, in which a third of individuals with chronic HCV infections may develop liver cirrhosis. In a chronic HCV infection, host immune factors along with the actions of HCV proteins that promote viral persistence and dysregulation of the immune system have an impact on immunopathogenesis of HCV-induced hepatitis. The genome of HCV encodes a single polyprotein, which is translated and processed into structural and nonstructural proteins. These HCV proteins are the target of the innate and adaptive immune system of the host. Retinoic acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I)-like receptors and Toll-like receptors are the main pattern recognition receptors that recognize HCV pathogen-associated molecular patterns. This interaction results in a downstream cascade that generates antiviral cytokines including interferons. The cytolysis of HCV-infected hepatocytes is mediated by perforin and granzyme B secreted by cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) and natural killer (NK) cells, whereas noncytolytic HCV clearance is mediated by interferon gamma (IFN-γ) secreted by CTL and NK cells. A host-HCV interaction determines whether the acute phase of an HCV infection will undergo complete resolution or progress to the development of viral persistence with a consequential progression to chronic HCV infection. Furthermore, these host-HCV interactions could pose a challenge to developing an HCV vaccine. This review will focus on the role of the innate and adaptive immunity in HCV infection, the failure of the immune response to clear an HCV infection, and the factors that promote viral persistence.

Discovery and Mechanistic Study of a Novel Human-Stimulator-of-Interferon-Genes Agonist.

Stimulator of interferon genes (STING) is an integral ER-membrane protein that can be activated by 2'3'-cGAMP synthesized by cyclic guanosine monophosphate-adenosine monophosphate synthase (cGAS) upon binding of double-stranded DNA. It activates interferon (IFN) and inflammatory cytokine responses to defend against infection by microorganisms. Pharmacologic activation of STING has been demonstrated to induce an antiviral state and boost antitumor immunity. We previously reported a cell-based high-throughput-screening assay that allowed for identification of small-molecule cGAS-STING-pathway agonists. We report herein a compound, 6-bromo-N-(naphthalen-1-yl)benzo[d][1,3]dioxole-5-carboxamide (BNBC), that induces a proinflammatory cytokine response in a human-STING-dependent manner. Specifically, we showed that BNBC induced type I and III IFN dominant cytokine responses in primary human fibroblasts and peripheral-blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). BNBC also induced cytokine response in PBMC-derived myeloid dendritic cells and promoted their maturation, suggesting that STING-agonist treatment could potentially regulate the activation of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes. As anticipated, treatment of primary human fibroblast cells with BNBC induced an antiviral state that inhibited the infection of several kinds of flaviviruses. Taken together, our results indicate that BNBC is a human-STING agonist that not only induces innate antiviral immunity against a broad spectrum of viruses but may also stimulate the activation of adaptive immune responses, which is important for the treatment of chronic viral infections and tumors.

A cell-based high throughput screening assay for the discovery of cGAS-STING pathway agonists.

Stimulator of interferon genes (STING) is an endoplasmic reticulum transmembrane protein that serves as a molecular hub for activation of interferon and inflammatory cytokine response by multiple cellular DNA sensors. Not surprisingly, STING has been demonstrated to play an important role in host defense against microorganisms and pharmacologic activation of STING is considered as an attractive strategy to treat viral diseases and boost antitumor immunity. In light of this we established a HepAD38-derived reporter cell line that expresses firefly luciferase in response to the activation of cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)-STING pathway for high throughput screening (HTS) of small molecular human STING agonists. This cell-based reporter assay required only 4 h treatment with a reference STING agonist to induce a robust luciferase signal and was demonstrated to have an excellent performance in HTS format. By screening 16,000 compounds, a dispiro diketopiperzine (DSDP) compound was identified to induce cytokine response in a manner dependent on the expression of functional human STING, but not mouse STING. Moreover, we showed that DSDP induced an interferon-dominant cytokine response in human skin fibroblasts and peripheral blood mononuclear cells, which in turn potently suppressed the replication of yellow fever virus, dengue virus and Zika virus. We have thus established a robust cell-based assay system suitable for rapid discovery and mechanistic analyses of cGAS-STING pathway agonists. Identification of DSDP as a human STING agonist enriches the pipelines of STING-targeting drug development for treatment of viral infections and cancers.

IFN-α-Induced Downregulation of miR-221 in Dendritic Cells: Implications for HCV Pathogenesis and Treatment.

Although interferon (IFN)-α is known to exert immunomodulatory and antiproliferative effects on dendritic cells (DCs) through induction of protein-coding IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs), little is known about IFN-α-regulated miRNAs in DCs. Since several miRNAs are involved in regulating DC functions, it is important to investigate whether IFN-α's effects on DCs are mediated through miRNAs as well. In this study, we examined miRNA expression patterns in myeloid DCs (mDCs) and plasmacytoid DCs after exposing them to IFN-α. We report that IFN-α downregulates miR-221 in both DC subsets via inhibition of STAT3. We validated proapoptotic proteins BCL2L11 and CDKN1C as miR-221 targets suggesting that IFN-α can induce DC apoptosis via miR-221 downregulation. In addition, we validated another miR-221 target, SOCS1, which is known to be a negative regulator of JAK/STAT signaling. Consistent with this, miR-221 overexpression in mDCs enhanced the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α. In peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of HIV-1/HCV co-infected individuals undergoing IFN-α-based treatment the baseline miR-221 expression was lower in non-responders compared with responders; and miR-221 expression directly correlated with DC frequency and IL-6/TNF-α secretion. In addition to PBMCs, we isolated total liver cells and kupffer cells from HCV-infected individuals and individuals with alcoholic cirrhosis. We found that both total liver cells and kupffer cells from HCV-infected individuals had significantly higher miR-221 levels compared with individuals with cirrhosis. Overall, we demonstrate that IFN-α exerts both antiproliferative and immunomodulatory effects on mDCs via miR-221 downregulation; and IFN-miR-221 axis can play important role in HCV pathogenesis and treatment.

Host Genetic Factors and Dendritic Cell Responses Associated with the Outcome of Interferon/Ribavirin Treatment in HIV-1/HCV Co-Infected Individuals.

HIV-1/HCV co-infection is a significant health problem. Highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART) against HIV-1 has proved to be fairly successful. On the other hand, direct acting antiviral drugs against HCV have improved cure rates but high cost and development of drug resistance are important concerns. Therefore PEGylated interferon (PEG-IFN) and ribavirin (RBV) still remain essential components of HCV treatment, and identification of host factors that predict IFN/RBV treatment response is necessary for effective clinical management of HCV infection. Impaired dendritic cell (DC) and T cell responses are associated with HCV persistence. It has been shown that IFN/RBV treatment enhances HCV-specific T cell functions and it is likely that functional restoration of DCs is the underlying cause. To test this hypothesis, we utilized an antibody cocktail (consisting of DC maturation, adhesion and other surface markers) to perform comprehensive phenotypic characterization of myeloid DCs (mDCs) and plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs) in a cohort of HIV-1/HCV co-infected individuals undergoing IFN/RBV treatment. Our results show that pre-treatment frequencies of mDCs are lower in non-responders (NRs) compared to responders (SVRs) and healthy controls. Although, the treatment was able to restore the frequency of mDCs in NRs, it downregulated the frequency of CCR7+, CD54+ and CD62L+ mDCs. Pre-treatment frequencies of pDCs were lower in NRs and decreased further upon treatment. Compared to SVRs, NRs exhibited higher ratio of PD-L1+/CD86+ pDCs prior to treatment; and this ratio remained high even after treatment. These findings demonstrate that enumeration and phenotypic assessment of DCs before/during therapy can help predict the treatment outcome. We also show that before treatment, PBMCs from SVRs secrete higher amounts of IFN-γ compared to controls and NRs. Upon genotyping IFNL3 polymorphisms rs12979860, rs4803217 and ss469415590, we found rs12979860 to be a better predictor of treatment outcome. Collectively, our study led to identification of important correlates of IFN/RBV treatment response in HIV-1/HCV co-infected individuals.

Dendritic Cells in HIV-1 and HCV Infection: Can They Help Win the Battle?

Persistent infections with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) are a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. As sentinels of our immune system, dendritic cells (DCs) play a central role in initiating and regulating a potent antiviral immune response. Recent advances in our understanding of the role of DCs during HIV-1 and HCV infection have provided crucial insights into the mechanisms employed by these viruses to impair DC functions in order to evade an effective immune response against them. Modulation of the immunological synapse between DC and T-cell, as well as dysregulation of the crosstalk between DCs and natural killer (NK) cells, are emerging as two crucial mechanisms. This review focuses on understanding the interaction of HIV-1 and HCV with DCs not only to understand the immunopathogenesis of chronic HIV-1 and HCV infection, but also to explore the possibilities of DC-based immunotherapeutic approaches against them. Host genetic makeup is known to play major roles in infection outcome and rate of disease progression, as well as response to anti-viral therapy in both HIV-1 and HCV-infected individuals. Therefore, we highlight the genetic variations that can potentially affect DC functions, especially in the setting of chronic viral infection. Altogether, we address if DCs' potential as critical effectors of antiviral immune response could indeed be utilized to combat chronic infection with HIV-1 and HCV.

An altered maturation and adhesion phenotype of dendritic cells in diseased individuals compared to asymptomatic carriers of human T cell leukemia virus type 1.

The immunopathogenic mechanisms underlying human T cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1)-mediated diseases such as adult T cell leukemia (ATL) and HTLV-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP) are not clearly understood. As critical effectors of antiviral immune response, dendritic cells (DCs) are implicated to play an important role in determining the outcome of HTLV-1 infection. However, a complete understanding of their role in any disease pathogenesis requires extensive assessment of the phenotypic and functional state of DCs. To enable this, we developed a polychromatic antibody cocktail comprising key phenotypic and functional markers of DCs and applied it in a patient cohort from the HTLV-1 endemic region, Jamaica, consisted of seronegative controls, asymptomatic carriers (ACs), ATL, and HAM/TSP patients. This ex vivo analyses included two major subsets of blood DCs, myeloid and plasmacytoid (mDCs and pDCs, respectively). The comparative analyses of results demonstrated a decreased pDC frequency in both ATL and HAM/TSP patients as compared to ACs and seronegative controls. Similarly, CD86 expression on both mDCs and pDCs was significantly higher in HAM/TSP (but not ATL) patients compared to ACs. Interestingly, HLA-DR expression was significantly lower on pDCs of patients as compared to carriers; however, for mDCs, only the HAM/TSP group had significantly lower expression of HLA-DR. Unlike HAM/TSP individuals, ATL individuals had higher HLA-ABC expression on mDCs compared to ACs. Finally, both mDCs and pDCs of HAM/TSP patients had significantly higher expression of the programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) compared to ACs. Overall, this study suggests that DCs exhibit a differential phenotypic and functional profile between patients (ATL and HAM/TSP) and carriers of HTLV-1 and could provide an important tool for understanding HTLV-1 immunopathogenesis during infection and disease.